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THE 

APPLE    CULTURIST. 

A  COMPLETE  TREATISE 
FOR  THE  PRACTICAL  POMOLOGIST. 

TO  AID  IN  PROPAGATING  THE  APPLE,  AND  CULTIVATING 
AND  MANAGING  ORCHARDS. 


ILLUSTEATED  WITH  ENGRAVINGS  OF  FRUIT,  YOUNG  AND  OLD  TREES, 

AND  MECHANICAL  DEVICES  EMPLOYED  IN  CONNECTION  WITH 

ORCHARDS  AND  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  APPLES. 


^  By  SERENO  EDWARDS  TODD, 

AUTHOR  OF  "TODD'S  YOUNG  FARMER'S  MANUAL,"  "AMERICAN  WHEAT  CULTURIST," 
" TODD'S  COUNTRY  HOMES,"  and  "HOW  TO  SAVE  MONEY." 


NEW    YORK: 

HARPER  &    BROTHERS,  PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN   SQUARE. 
1  8V1. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1871, 
Haepeb   &  Brothers, 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


DEDICATED 


REV.  THEODORE  LEDYARD  CUYLER,  D.D. 

My  Highly  -  esteemed  Feiend,— Understanding,  in  a  measure,  your  cheerful 
zeal  and  co-operation  in  every  philantliropic  enterprise  which  tends  in  any  way 
to  render  the  world  wiser,  and  mankind  better  and  happier,  and  knowing  your 
appreciative  taste  for  luscious  apples,  permit  me  to  dedicate  to  you  a  little  vol- 
ume on  the  culture  of  your  favorite  fruit. 

The  foundation  of  our  holy  religion  lies  in  the  virtuous  industry  of  the  people. 
Hence,  in  our  efforts  to  render  the  human  family  the  recipients  of  the  greatest 
good,  we  need  to  educate  their  lower  faculties  ylrs^.  If  we  teach  a  nation  to  culti- 
vate bountiful  crops  of  fine  wheat,  and  to  produce  large  supplies  of  excellent  ap- 
ples and  other  fruit,  we  have  secured  a  foundation  on  which  it  will  be  compara- 
tively easy  to  develop  the  finer  and  nobler  faculties  of  the  soul.  Taking  this) 
view  of  the  duties  of  our  mortal  state,  it  is  a  cheering  thought  that,  while  we 
played  and  ate  apples  together  in  the  days  of  boyhood,  we  may  labor  side  by 
side— I  at  laying  the  foundation,  and  yourself  in  lifting  up  and  fortifying  a  glori- 
ous superstructure  of  manhood— in  society,  where  virtue,  religion,  and  truth  are 
the  crowning  excellences. 

If  we  go  where  no  boughs  laden  with  choice  fruit  bend  to  kiss  the  rosy  cheeks 
of  guileless  children  playing  beneath,  and  where  no  waving  grain  rolls  in  the 
summer  breezes  like  a  sea  of  gold,  we  shall  find  a  pall  of  heathenish  darknesa 
resting  on  the  people  like  a  mighty  incubus.  Hence,  I  send  out  this  little  book 
to  the  world,  with  the  hope  that  it  will  perform  the  duties  of  a  philanthropic  pio- 
neer in  preparing  the  rough  ways  of  civilized  life  for  the  more  complete  enjoy- 
ment of  an  elevated  manhood.  I  trust  it  may  be  found  a  timely  vade  Tnecum  in 
the  hands  of  young  men  who  have  a  desire  to  establish  happy  homes  and  to  cul- 
tivate choice  fruit. 

Superb  apples  are  the  product  of  Eden.  A  good  boy  with  a  hatful  of  Sweet 
Boughs  and  a  pocketful  of  gingerbread  will  always  be  found  a  more  tractable  pu- 
pil when  getting  his  lessons  in  the  Catechism,  than  if  the  stomach  were  distend- 
ed with  heavy  animal  food  of  a  stimulating  character.  A  home  without  children 
and  destitute  of  apples,  is  like  a  beautiful  grove  without  the  cheering  songs  of 
birds.  What  delightful  memories  dance  in  the  sunshine  of  our  boyhood,  as  our 
thoughts  revert  to  the  homes  of  our  early  years,  on  fair  Cayuga's  fertile  slope  in 
Central  New  York,  where  the  pathway  of  life  was  embellished  with  apple-trees 
which  seldom  failed  to  shower  down  golden  luxuries  in  great  profusion  !  Those 
were  halcyon  days  in  our  happy  experience.  Fond  memory  delights  to  linger  in 
the  extensive  apple-orchards  where  bountiful  supplies  of  Sweet  Boughs,  Swaars, 
Spitzenbergs,  and  other  choice  varieties  rendered  material  aid  in  smoothing  the 
asperities  of  our  buoyant  existence ;  and  we  often  wish  we  were  boys  again— 
if  it  were  possible  to  begin  a  new  career  with  our  present  experience— that  we 
might  again  rejoice  in  the  delight  which  once  swelled  the  young  heart  at  the 
sight  of  hatfuls  and  pocketfuls  of  ruby  apples. 

With  my  best  wishes  for  your  success  in  all  your  labors  of  love,  and  that  your 
last  days  may  be  replete  with  joy  and  gladness, 

I  remain  your  faithful  friend, 

SERENO  EDWARDS  TODD. 
Brooklyn,  L.  T. 


/4S 


SERENO  EDWARDS  TODD,  Esq.  : 

My  deae  old  Peiend  and  Sohool-mate,— I  thank  you  heartily  for  the'pleasant 
compliment  of  linking  my  name  with  your  savory  treatise  on  my  favorite  fruit. 
The  very  reading  over  of  that  goodly  catalogue  of  varieties— from  the  "Early  Har- 
vest "  and  the  **  Strawberry,"  on  to  the  "Newtown  Pippin  "  and  the  "  King-apple  " 
—carried  me  back  to  the  cellar  and  the  apple-bin  of  my  boyhood.  When  you  and 
I  went  to  the  district-school  together,  we  crammed  our  pockets  with  "  Swaars  "  or 
"Greenings"  for  the  noonday  lunch.  What  French  confections  are  to  city-bred 
children,  that  were  a  hatful  of  apples  and  a  pocketful  of  hickory-nuts  to  us  home- 
spun lads  in  the  dear  old  free,  broad  country.  A  book  that  recalls  those  days  is 
as  "sweet  to  me  as  the  breath  of  new-mown  hay." 

May  your  latest  volume  be  as  popular  and  useful  as  its  many  predecessors  from 
your  fertile  pen,  wisheth 

Yoar  friend  of  yore, 

THEO.  L.  CUTLER. 

Lafmjette  Avemie  Church,  Brooklyn,  Dec,  15, 1870. 


PREFACE. 


I  sing  of  the  apple,  with  roseate  bloom, 

That  flourished  in  mazes  of  verdurous  gloom 

In  Eden's  fair  bowers — in  tint  and  in  shape— 

The  apple  that  vies  with  the  peach  and  the  grape.— Edwards. 

From  early  boyhood  the  writer  of  this  little  treatise  has  been 
practically  engaged,  more  or  less  every  year,  in  the  propagation  of 
apple-trees  and  the  management  of  orchards.  As  there  is  no  little 
manual  on  "  Apple  Orchards  "  in  all  our  agricultural  and  pomolog- 
ical  literature  which  a  beginner  may  study  as  a  reliable  guide  in 
every  branch  of  apple  culture,  and  as  the  author  in  early  life  was 
obliged  to  advance  from  one  step  to  another,  in  the  rearing  and 
management  of  apple-trees,  by  the  slow  and  often  uncertain  way 
of  determining  the  better  practices  by  experiments,  he  feels  war- 
ranted in  preparing  a  small  volume,  in  which  are  embodied  the 
successful  results  of  the  experience  of  more  than  forty  years. 

Most  of  the  works  on  pomology  are  either  too  voluminous  and 
expensive  to  meet  all  the  requirements  of  men  who  need  a  cheap 
book  containing  brief  directions  for  beginners,  or  the  writers  have 
assumed  that  their  readers  already  possess  a  pretty  correct  under- 
standing of  that  branch  of  pomology  which  treats  of  the  correct 
mode  of  propagating  apple-trees,  and  the  most  satisfactory  manner 
of  managing  apple  orchards  in  order  to  produce  profitable  crops 
of  fruit. 

Every  beginner  will  always  encounter  certain  difficulties  in  the 
production  and  management  of  apple  orchards ;  and  he  must  nec- 
essarily learn  how  to  overcome  them  in  a  reliable  and  satisfactory 
manner,  either  by  experiments  conducted  frequently,  amidst  per- 
plexing doubts  as  to  the  ultimate  results,  or  he  must  be  ftimished 
with  the  results  of  numerous  experiments  made  by  practical  po- 
mologists,  which  he  can  rely  upon  wTith  the  same  confidence  that 
he  would  feel  if  he  had  worked  out  the  same  results  on  his  own 
grounds.    -The  aim  of  the  author,  therefore,  has  been  to  supply 


6  PREFACE. 

inquiring  beginners  with  the  fundamental  knowledge  which  one 
must  possess  before  he  can  proceed  satisfactorily  in  the  cultivation 
of  apples,  and  to  record  such  results  of  long  experience  as  will  en- 
able any  intelligent  person  to  perform  the  operations  required  in 
the  management  of  orchards,  or  of  the  apples,  in  the  best  and  most 
approved  manner.  Hence  a  satisfactory  answer  to  almost  any  ques- 
tion that  an  inquirer  after  pomological  truth  touching  the  apple 
may  desire  to  have  practically  elucidated,  may  be  found  in  some 
one  of  the  chapters  of  this  little  book.  Reliable  facts,  conveyed 
in  plain  and  intelligible  language,  have  moved  the  author's  pen, 
rather  than  any  desire  to  roll  out  beautifully-rounded  sentences  to 
please  the  fancy  more  than  they  would  instruct  an  humble  in- 
quirer after  truth. 

There  are  many  thousands  of  young  men  in  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
try who  need  the  aid  that  such  a  practical  treatise  on  the  apple 
will  furnish.  The  writer  has  endeavored  to  present  every  subject 
in  such  a  manner  that  a  beginner  will  be  able  to  perceive  and  to 
appreciate  what  should  be  done,  as  well  as  what  is  not  allowable. 
Apple  orchards  seem  to  be  failing — for  which  there  are  plausible 
reasons ;  and  we  have  endeavored  to  show  intelligent  beginners 
the  true  causes  of  failure,  to  direct  their  operations  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  there  shall  be  no  such  thing  as  a  failure  of  the  apple  crop. 
We  have  recorded  nothing  that  has  not  been  put  to  a  practical 
test,  and  found,  by  long  experience,  to  be  reliable.  We  have  also 
endeavored  to  encourage  beginners  to  plant  an  orchard  early  in 
life,  and  to  manage  the  trees  in  such  a  manner  that  they  will  never 
lack  a  liberal  supply  of  good  apples. 

The  author  has  been  writing  more  or  less  on  fruit  for  thirty  years 
past ;  and  some  of  the  articles  have  been  published  in  the  "  Cul- 
tivator "  and  "  Country  Gentleman,"  in  the  "  American  Agricultur- 
ist," "  New  York  Times,"  and  "  New  York  Observer,"  while  edito- 
rially connected  with  those  journals  ;  some  in  "  Moore's  Rural  New 
Yorker  "  and  in  the  ''  Working  Farmer,"  all  of  which  have  been 
reconstructed  and  revised.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  small  il- 
lustrations reproduced  from  electrotypes  taken  from  "  Downing's 
Fruits  and  Fruit-trees  of  America,"  and  a  few  also  from  the  "  Amer- 
ican Entomologist,"  through  the  courtesy  of  its  publishers,  the  il- 
lustrations have  all  been  engraved  by  the  publishers  of  this  book. 

Sereno  Edwakds  Todd. 

Brooklyn,  L.  I. 


CONTENT  S. 

Introduction Page     9 

CHAPTER  I. 
Propagating  Apple-trees.— Grafting  and  Budding 19 

CHAPTER  II. 
Proper  Preparation  of  the  Soil  for  Orchards 56 

CHAPTER  III. 
Laying  Out  the  Ground  for  an  Orchard 70 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Removing  and  Transplanting  both  Old  and  Young  Trees 84 

CHAPTER  V. 
Pruning  and  Training  in  the  most  successful  Manner Ill 

CHAPTER  VI. 
General  Management  of  Orchards. — Renovating  old  Orchards 144 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Failure  of  Orchards,  and  the  practicable  Remedy 194 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Exterminating  noxious  Insects,  and  proper  protection  of  Orchards 
from  Animals 227 

CHAPTER  IX. 
Gathering  and  Management  of  Apples 283 

CHAPTER  X. 
General  Principles  of  Pomology,  and  a  Pomological  Glossary 317 


YELLOW  BELLFLOWEE. 


Symmy'm8.—Be]]e  Flenr,  Bellefleur  Yellow,  Lady  Washington,  Warren  Pippin, 
Bishop's  Pippin  of  Nova  Scotia,  and  Reinette  Musque.  The  engraving,  as  to  form, 
is  a  fair  representation  of  the  Yellow  Bellflower.  The  fruit  is  usually  large  and 
beautiful ;  skin  smooth,  pale  lemon  yellow,  often  with  a  beautiful  blush  on  the 
side  next  the  sun.  The  flesh  is  tender,  juicy,  crisp,  with  a  slightly  sub-acid  flavor. 
Before  the  fruit  is  fully  ripe,  it  is  considerably  acid.  Season,  November  to  March. 
The  trees  are  excellent  bearers,  and  moderately  hardy.  This  variety  commands 
a  ready  price  in  market,  as  the  fruit  is  large,  and  usually  handsome.  The  Yellow 
Bellflower  is  an  excellent  apple  for  pies  and  apple-dumplings. 


INTRODUCTION, 


We  come  with  a  handful  of  apple-seeds  red, 

To  plaut  with  the  spade  in  a  deep  mellow  bed : 

When  tempests  of  winter,  in  fury  sweep  by. 

On  earth's  gelid  bosom  the  tiny  seeds  lie.— Edwaeds. 

Apples  of  some  varieties  are  cultivated  successfully  over 
a  greater  breadth  of  country  than  any  other  fruit.  No  oth- 
er trees  can  be  relied  upon  for  a  regular  supply  of  choice 
fruit  every  year,  for  a  great  number  of  years,  with  more 
certainty  of  a  crop,  than  apple-trees.  On  every  hill  and  in 
every  valley,  on  every  plain  and  mountain  between  the  cold 
and  backward  localities  of  Maine  and  Canada,  to  the  ex- 
treme border  of  the  Golden  State,  apple-trees,  if  correctly 
propagated  and  properly  managed,  will  not  fail  to  reward 
the  tiller  of  the  soil  with  abundant  crops.  More  than  this, 
there  is  no  other  kind  of  fruit  cultivated  that  can  be  made 
to  mature  during  such  a  long  succession  of  months  as  the 
apple.  And  then  the  almost  unlimited  variety  as  to  the 
taste  and  quality  of  fruit,  constitutes  another  consideration 
of  transcendent  importance.  We  have  varieties  which  are 
fully  ripe  and  delicious  before  the  last  days  of  rosy  summer 
have  faded  away,  and  a  regular  succession  afterwards  of 
choice  varieties  that  are  in  season  until  there  is  an  encour- 
aging promise  of  another  crop.  Apples  are  one  of  the 
greatest  luxuries  that  people  can  depend  upon  as  a  regular 
article  of  food.  They  are  excellent  while  in  a  crude  state, 
and  superb  when  cooked  in  a  score  of  different  ways. 
Adults  like  them,  and  children  love  them.      All  kinds  of 

1* 


10  INTMODUCTION. 

domestic  animals,  from  the  noble  carriage-horse  down  to 
the  cackling  poultry,  will  devour  apples — especially  sweet 
ones — with  great  avidity.  And  such  food,  in  connection 
with  other  articles,  will  always  be  found  profitable. 

"For  dumplings,  pies,  or  even  apple-stew, 
What  could  our  cooks  or  our  good  housewives  do, 
If  by  perchance  the  apple  should  step  out  ? 
Sore  grief  would  seize  on  many  bosoms  stout." 

An  eminent  French  physician  says  the  decrease  of  dys- 
pepsia and  bilious  affections  in  Paris  is  owing  to  the  in- 
creased consumption  of  apples,  which  fruit,  he  maintains, 
is  an  admirable  prophylactic  and  tonic,  as  well  as  very 
nourishing,  and  easily  digested. 

The  proper  contemplation  of  the  production  of  a  large 
apple-tree,  from  a  tiny  seed,  with  branches  bending  beneath 
a  bountiful  crop  of  luscious  fruit,  is  a  source  of  sublime 
and  interesting  thought  to  every  reflecting  mind.  The 
swelling  of  the  germ  in  the  seed-bed,  the  bursting  of  the 
envelope  of  the  kernel,  the  starting  of  the  thread-like  roots, 
and  the  formation  of  a  stem,  constitute  germination  of  the 
seed;  and  the  more  complete  growth  and  development  of 
the  radicles,  stem,  branches,  leaves,  and  flowers  embrace  the 
idea  of  vegetation.  The  unfolding  of  the  fruit- buds,  the 
development  of  the  flowers,  and  the  perfection  of  the  fruit, 
constitute  fructification. 

All  these  operations,  when  taken  collectively  and  studied, 
so  that  the  different  processes  of  growth  and  development 
shall  be  appreciated,  will  give  the  intelligent  poraologist 
such  an  insight  into  fruit-growing  as  will  tend  to  supply 
our  markets,  and  the  tables  of  both  rich  and  poor,  with  an 
abundance  of  the  cheapest  luxuries  of  mortal  life.  The 
production  of  a  fruitful  apple  orchard,  from  the  time  it  is 
set  until  it  comes  into  bearing,  is  necessarily  a  question  of 
time — to  say  the  least,  requiring  from  five  to  eight  years, 


INTRODUCTION.  11 

under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  to  obtain  any  thing 
like  a  supply  of  fruit  for  the  use  of  a  family. 

There  is  no  way  a  man  can  so  effectually  rear  a  monu- 
ment to  posterity,  and  one  for  which  he  shall  receive  their 
blessing,  as  by  planting  a  fruitful  apple  orchard  that  shall 
yield  a  luxury  in  its  wealth  of  delicious  golden  fruit.  To 
the  young,  there  is  nothing  about  the  farm  more  attractive 
than  the  orchard.  They  have  a  constant,  insatiable  appe- 
tite for  fruit  —  for  apples,  peaches,  cherries,  pears,  nectar- 
ines, grapes,  melons.  The  country  is  not  the  country  with- 
out them.  The  green  fields,  the  majestic  forest-trees,  the 
cool  springs  and  the  meandering  streams,  are  all  engraved 
indelibly  upon  their  memories.  And  when  they  review  the 
happy  days  of  childhood,  and  think  of 

"The  orchard,  the  meadow,  the  deep-tangled  wild-wood," 

fond  memory  lingers  longest  about  the  old  apple-trees  that 
have  so  often  filled  the  pockets,  hat,  and  baskets  with  boun- 
tiful supplies  of  luscious  fruit. 

The  production  of  a  fruitful  apple  orchard,  and  the  an- 
nual care  and  protection  of  the  growing  crop  of  fruit,  con 
stitute  not  only  a  delightful,  elegant,  and  scientific  occupa- 
tion, but,  where  the  locality  is  such  as  to  afford  market  fa- 
cilities, it  is  really  one  of  the  most  profitable  in  the  whole 
range  of  agriculture.  Good  ripe  apples  are  not  only  ob- 
jects of  great  beauty,  highly  conducive  to  health,  but  they 
are  an  important  article  of  domestic  consumption  and 
household  economy.  They  furnish  the  best  and  cheapest 
desserts,  that  enter  largely  into  a  variety  of  dishes.  They 
supply  t^e  table  during  the  summer  and  fall  months,  when 
crude,  dried,  and  preserved,  and  they  last  through  the  win- 
ter. Good  apples  are  at  all  seasons,  and  in  all  their  various 
forms,  useful  and  delightful,  both  in  health  and  in  sickness. 
When  we  contemplate  the  perfection  to  which  apples  have 


12  INTRODUCTION. 

been  brought  by  proper  care  and  culture,  we  are  amazed  at 
the  neglect,  the  utter  and  almost  criminal  neglect  and  con- 
tempt of  which  they  have,  for  two  centuries,  been  the  sub- 
ject in  the  states  of  the  South,  and  to  a  great  extent  now 
are.  The  idea  has  prevailed,  and  still  prevails,  that  we 
have  a  claim  upon  nature  for  a  fruit  crop  without  assisting 
in  its  production ;  and  when  it  fails  we  blame  nature,  the 
trees,  the  soil — any  thing  and  every  thing  but  ourselves,  to 
whom  the  blame  chiefly  belongs.  Every  man  who  has  a 
farm  or  a  garden  should  raise  fruit,  and  attend  carefully  to 
his  trees.  If  he  raises  it  only  for  domestic  use,  he  will  be 
repaid  for  his  trouble  tenfold.  If  so  situated  as  to  be  able 
to  throw  it  into  market,  he  will  find  it  one  of  the  most 
profitable  of  his  crops.  Under  the  old  plan  of  planting  an 
orchard  and  leaving  it  to  itself,  a  generation  passed  before 
it  was  productive ;  but  under  modern  culture  it  yields  its 
fruits  in  a  few  years.  For  instance,  we  find  it  stated  by  a 
reliable  authority,  that  in  a  single  garden,  apple-trees,  the 
fifth  year  from  setting  out,  yielded  a  bushel  each ;  peach- 
trees,  the  third  summer,  bore  three  pecks ;  and  a  Bartlett 
pear,  two  years  from  transplanting,  gave  a  peck  of  superb 
fruit.  None  of  these  trees  were  an  inch  in  diameter  when 
transplanted,  nor  was  their  treatment  better  than  that 
which  every  good  farmer  bestows  upon  his  carrots  and 
potatoes.  The  apple  orchards  of  America  are  a  striking 
characteristic  of  the  energy,  ambition,  and  persistent  utility 
of  a  nation  which  is  a  unit  in  power,  efiiciency,  and  nobility, 
which  can  not  be  found  on  any  other  portion  of  our  globe. 
Hon.  Horace  Greeley  once  wrote :  "  If  I  were  asked  to 
say  what  single  aspect  of  our  economic  condition  most 
strikingly  and  favorably  distinguished  the  people  of  our 
Northern  States  from  those  of  most  if  not  all  other  coun- 
tries which  I  have  traversed,  I  would  point  at  once  to  the 
fruit-trees  which  so  generally  diversify  every  little  as  well 


INTRODUCTION.  13 

as  larger  farm  throughout  these  States,  and  are  quite  com- 
monly found  even  on  the  petty  holdings  of  the  poorer  me- 
chanics and  workmen  in  every  village,  and  in  the  suburbs 
and  outskirts  of  every  city.  I  can  recall  nothing  like  it 
abroad,  save  in  two  or  three  of  the  least  mountainous  and 
most  fertile  districts  of  Northern  Switzerland.  Italy  has 
some  approach  to  it  in  the  venerable  olive-trees  which  sur- 
round or  flank  many,  perhaps  most,  of  her  farm-houses,  up- 
holding grape-vines  as  ancient  and  nearly  as  large  as  them- 
selves; but  the  average  New  England  or  Middle  State 
homestead,  with  its  ample  apple  orchard  and  its  cluster  of 
pear,  cherry,  and  plum  trees  surrounding  its  house,  and  dot- 
ting or  belting  its  garden,  has  an  air  of  comfort  and  mod- 
est thrift  which  I  have  nowhere  else  seen  fairly  equalled. 

On  the  whole,  I  deem  it  a  misfortune  that  our  Northern 
States  were  so  admirably  adapted  to  the  apple  and  kindred 
fruit-trees,  that  our  pioneer  forefathers  had  little  more  to 
do  than  bury  the  seeds  in  the  ground  and  wait  a  few  years 
for  the  resulting  fruit.  The  soil,  formed  of  decayed  trees 
and  their  foliage,  thickly  covered  with  the  ashes  of  the  prim- 
itive forest,  was  as  genial  as  soil  could  be ;  while  the  re- 
maining woods,  which  still  covered  seven-eighths  of  the 
country,  shut  out  or  softened  the  cold  winds  of  winter  and 
spring,  rendering  it  less  difficult,  a  century  ago,  to  grow 
fine  peaches  in  Southern  New  Hampshire  than  it  now  is 
in  Southern  New  York.  Snows  fell  more  heavily,  and  lay 
longer,  then  than  now,  protecting  the  roots  from  heavy 
frosts,  and  keeping  back  buds  and  blossoms  in  spring,  to 
the  signal  advantage  of  the  husbandman.  I  estimate  that 
my  apple-trees  would  bear  at  least  one-third  more  fruit  if  I 
could  retard  their  blossoming  a  fortnight,  so  as  to  avoid 
the  cold  rains  and  cutting  winds,  often  succeeded  by  frosts, 
which  are  apt  to  pay  their  unwelcome  farewell  visits  just 
when  my  trees  are  in  bloom,  or  when  the  fruit  is  forming 


U  IXTMODUCTION. 

directly  thereafter.  An  apple  orchard  in  full  bearing,  the 
tempting  fruit  blushing  among  the  foliage,  or  covering  the 
ground  with  a  profusion  of  golden  "  nuggets  ■ '  such  as  no 
mine  can  yield,  has  a  fullness  of  beauty  which,  while  it 
charms  the  eye,  appeals  not  less  successfully  to  other  senses. 
Hon.  H.  T.  Brooks  once  said  in  an  agricultural  address, 
when  alluding  to  the  value  of  the  apple :  "  By  no  earthly 
process,  in  my  opinion,  can  so  much  nutriment  be  so  cheap- 
ly extracted  from  four  square  rods  of  ground  as  by  planting 
an  apple-tree  in  the  centre,  and  giving  it  good  cultivation. 
Apples  need  the  ground,  the  whole  of  it,  and  all  it  contains, 
but  "immemorial  usage"  allows  an  apple-tree  no  rights 
that  husbandmen  are  bound  to  respect.  It  is  haggled  and 
mangled,  roots  and  branches,  and  the  soil  exhausted  in  the 
production  of  other  crops.  Charging  the  apples  with  the 
ground  they  actually  grow  upon  and  appropriate,  they  give 
far  better  returns  as  food  for  man  or  beast  than  corn,  wheat, 
or  potatoes.  New  York,  particularly  Western  New  York, 
has  a  character  at  home  and  abroad  for  fruit.  If  a  better 
apple  country  was  ever  made,  I  confess  I  never  heard  of  it. 
We  occupy  the  precise  position  where  the  tree  is  hardy  and 
healthy,  and  the  fruit  comes  nearest  perfection.  I  know  of 
no  ordinary  farm  crop  that  at  all  compares,  during  a  series 
of  years,  with  apples,  if  we  take  into  the  account  the  small 
expense  at  which  they  are  raised.  Should  we  reduce  the 
yield  to  one  half-barrel  to  the  tree,  apples  would  still  be  our 
most  profitable  crop.  I  boldly  claim  that  the  average  of 
our  orchards  could  be  doubled  by  good  cultivation.  An 
acre  of  ground  that  will  produce  forty  barrels  of  good  fruit 
ought  to  be  excused  from  growing  grain.  Whatever  grain 
or  root  crops  are  grown  upon  it,  detract,  doubtless,  more 
than  they  are  worth  from  the  apple  crops.  We  can  not, 
without  great  expense  and  trouble,  return  to  the  soil  all  the 
elements  which  our  wheat,  corn,  and  potatoes  take  from  it. 


IXTMODUCTION.  15 

When  I  hear  of  trees  standing  near  a  wood-pile,  in  the  cor- 
ner of  a  fence,  near  the  barn,  or  the  hog-pen,  or  the  kitchen- 
door,  I  am  prepared  for  a  big  yield.  The  great  majority 
of  our  apple-trees  are  either  starved  or  go  very  hungry. 
A  free  application  of  barn-yard  manure  is  indispensable  to 
the  continued  growth  and  productiveness  of  our  orchards. 
Ashes,  lime,  plaster,  and  perhaps  other  mineral  fertilizers, 
may  be  used  to  great  advantage.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  the  apple-tree  is  subject  to  the  general  laws  of  vegeta- 
ble growth.  You  can  not  have  large  and  fair  fruit  if  the 
soil  is  poor,  hard,  and  dry.  The  earth  should  be  mellow,  to 
secure  suitable  moisture  in  hot,  dry  weather,  and  to  impart 
needed  nourishment.  Begging  pardon  of  the  Pomological 
Society,  a  tree  knows  better  where  to  put  its  roots  than  any 
man  can  tell  it ;  and  the  apparently  stupid  roots  understand 
far  better  than  any  of  our  reputedly  wise  chemists  what 
elements  are  essential  for  the  production  of  a  bountiful  crop 
of  fine  fruit." 

A  Succession  of  choice  Apples. — Every  family  that  is  in 
possession  of  only  a  few  roods  of  good  ground — even  if 
much  of  the  surface  be  rocky  and  comparatively  untillable 
— should  have  a  succession  of  crude  apples,  suited  to  every 
season  of  the  year,  adapted  to  different  tastes  and  to  various 
household  uses.  If  a  person  has  the  land,  there  can  be  no 
possible  excuse  for  not  having  a  bountiful  supply  of  supe- 
rior fruit  in  six  to  ten  years,  unless  we  accept  the  shallow 
pretext  so  often  advanced,  "  a  want  of  time "  to  cultivate 
the  trees.  Every  man  fritters  away  every  season,  to  no  sat- 
isfactory purpose,  far  more  time  than  would  be  required  to 
plant  an  orchard  and  take  proper  care  of  the  number  of 
trees  requisite  to  supply  his  family  with  crude  apples  dur- 
ing the  entire  year.  The  apple  is  quite  different  from  per- 
ishable pears,  peaches,  plums,  and  other  kinds  of  fruit, 
which  must  be  consumed  to-dav,  or  they  will  be  worthless 


16  INTRODUCTION. 

to-morrow.  The  choice  varieties  of  apples  are  now  so  ex- 
tensive that,  by  proper  management,  in  our  latitude — New 
York  city — any  family  that  will  appropriate  only  a  part  of 
one  acre  to  a  few  trees  of  good  varieties  which  will  mature 
in  succession  may  begin  to  gather  crude,  ripe  apples  about 
the  first  of  July,  while  they  may  still  have  in  the  cellar  a 
small  supply  of  old  apples.  When  on  the  farm,  we  fre- 
quently ate  new  apples  of  the  Early  Harvest  variety  and 
Roxbury  Russets  on  the  same  day,  even  when  we  had  no 
facilities  for  keeping  apples,  except  a  good  cellar  beneath 
the  dwelling.  We  give  herewith  the  names  of  a  few  vari- 
eties which  will  furnish  a  succession  from  the  middle  of 
July  of  one  season,  to  the  same  period  —  or  even  later — 
of  the  following  season :  Early  Harvest,  Tallman  Sweeting, 
Early-Sweet  Bough,  Fall  Orange,  Early  Chandler,  Williams, 
Garden  Royal,  Porter,  Gravenstein,  Mother,  Hubbardston's 
Nonsuch,  Rhode  Island  Greening,  Ladies'  Sweet,  Peck's 
Pleasant,  Baldwin,  Roxbury  Russet,  Early  Joe,  American 
Summer  Pearmain,  Benoni,  Early  Strawberry,  Red  Astra- 
chan.  Summer  Pippin,  Duchess  of  Oldenburgh,  Twenty- 
Ounce,  Hawley,  Tompkins  County  King. 

One  tree  of  each  of  the  foregoing  varieties,  if  properly 
cultivated,  would  supply  a  small  family  with  all  the  fruit 
they  would  need  during  the  year,  before  the  trees  are  half- 
grown.  Those  persons  who  desire  extensive  orchards  can 
add  other  varieties  to  suit  locality  or  the  market.  By  re- 
ferring to  the  voluminous  treatise,  "  Downing's  Fruit  and 
Fruit-trees  of  America,"  the  reader  will  find  a  description 
of  almost  every  known  variety  of  apples,  a  list  of  which  it 
is  impracticable  to  give  in  this  small  work. 

The  man  who  desires  to  have  a  good  apple-orchard  has 
only  to  avail  himself  of  the  facilities  within  his  reach  on 
any  soil  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  Oceans,  where 
it  is  practicable  to  raise  fair  crops  of  cereal  grain ;  and  ap- 


INTRODUCTION.  17 

pies  in  copious  abundance  can  be  produced  on  dwarf  trees 
in  four  or  five  years,  and  on  standards  in  six  to  ten  years. 
A  well-balanced  brain  and  a  skillful  hand  will  not  fail  to 
produce  fine  fruit. 

We  have  in  mind  an  old  farmer  in  Ohio  who  felt  prompt- 
ed, when  a  young  man,  to  plant  an  orchard ;  but  he  had  im- 
bibed the  erroneous  notion  that  the  man  who  plants  apple- 
trees  seldom  lives  to  partake  of  the  fruit.  When  at  the 
age  of  forty,  fifty,  sixty,  and  at  seventy,  he  looked  back 
with  regret  that  he  did  not  plant  an  orchard  when  he  was 
a  young  man.  As  he  passed  the  age  of  threescore-and-ten, 
he  resolved  to  plant  an  orchard;  and  the  trees  came  into 
full  bearing  so  soon  that  he  lived  to  eat  the  luscious  frait 
of  his  labor  for  several  years,  and  to  get  drunk  on  the  cider 
made  from  the  apples  of  those  trees  which  were  planted  at 
such  a  late  period  in  his  life.  Apple-trees,  like  our  chil- 
dren, will  grow  up  so  quickly  that  we  are  surprised  to  con- 
template how  soon  they  are  filled  with  fruit.  If  one-half 
the  money  that  is  now  expended  by  the  laboring  classes  for 
tobacco  and  intoxicating  beverages,  the  pernicious  influen- 
ces of  which  fill  the  land  with  crime,  and  spread  unhappiness 
and  desolation  around  the  fireside,  were  employed  to  culti- 
vate apple-trees,  or  to  purchase  fi'uit,  many  apothecary 
shops  would  be  closed  at  once  for  lack  of  patronage ;  quacks 
and  doctors  would  be  obliged  to  seek  other  employment; 
and  unhappy  homes  would  be  changed  to  places  of  delight. 
A  small  fruit-orchard  is  far  more  valuable,  for  any  family, 
than  bonds,  mortgages,  or  money  at  legal  interest. 


BED  CANADA. 


Synonyms Poland,  Richfield  Nonsuch,  Stee'ie's  Red  Winter,  Old  Nonsuch  of 

Massachusetts.  This  is  an  old  variety,  which  has  been  almost  run  out  by  inju- 
dicious management  of  the  orchards.  With  good  cultivation  the  tree  is  very  pro- 
ductive. The  fruit  is  of  medium  size,  oblate,  inclining  to  a  conical  form.  Skin 
yellow,  and  usually  shaded  with  deep  red  crimson,  somewhat  striped  or  splashed 
on  the  sunny  side.  The  core  is  small  and  close.  Flesh  white,  tender,  crisp, 
abounding  with  a  refreshing  juice.  In  quality,  superior.  Season,  January  to 
May. 


THE 

APPLE   CULTURIST. 


CHAPTER  I. 

PROPAGATING  APPLE-TREES. 

"Here  embryo  apples  in  tough  rinds  compressed, 
Are  folded  in  beauty,  on  each  floret's  breast. 
The  sunshine  of  April  and  breath  of  sweet  May, 
Shall  lift  up  the  plumule  and  spread  out  the  spray." 

The  apple  is  propagated  by  planting  the  seeds,  by  graft- 
ing, and  by  inoculating,  or  budding ;  and  it  may  be  propa- 
gated by  cuttings  and  layers.  The  core  of  an  apple  is  fre- 
quently thrown  aside,  where  a  seed  sometimes  finds  a  mel- 
low seed-bed ;  and  the  next  season  a  young  tree  appears. 
Birds  frequently  drop  apple-seeds  in  a  bed  of  fine  mould, 
where  the  embryo  is  preserved,  until  circumstances  favor 
germination.  Young  apple-trees  frequently  spring  from 
the  seed  in  the  remains  of  decayed  apples. 

Apple  and  pear  seeds  are  usually  collected  in  autumn, 
separated  from  the  pomace,  mingled  with  moist  sand,  and 
kept  in  a  cellar  till  the  following  spring,  when  they  are 
planted  in  drills  as  one  plants  beet-seeds,  in  a  well-prepared 
seed-bed.  In  some  instances,  the  pomace  i^  scattered  in 
drills,  and  covered  with  fine  and  mellow  soil,  in  late  au- 
tumn. When  large  quantities  of  young  trees  are  required, 
the  seeds  are  sometimes  sown  broadcast  like  grain,  and  har- 
rowed in ;  and  in  many  instances  the  seeds  are  put  in  with 


20  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

grain  drills,  about  as  deep  as  seed-wheat  and  barley  are 
covered — say  two  inches  deep  in  a  mellow  seed-bed.  We 
have  in  mind  a  friend  in  Illinois,  who  wrote  that  he  would 
drill  in  forty  bushels  of  apple-seeds  in  the  spring  of  1870, 
distributing  that  quantity  over  eighteen  acres. 

As  there  is  a  tough  covering  on  the  outside  of  apple  and 
pear  seeds,  they  will  germinate  more  readily  if  they  can  be 
planted  in  autumn,  or  early  in  the  spring,  so  that  they  may 
be  frozen  and  thawed  two  or  three  times  before  the  grow- 
ing season  has  commenced.  And  yet,  apple-seeds  will  ger- 
minate without  having  been  frozen,  provided  they  are  not 
allowed  to  become  dry  after  being  separated  from  the  core. 
If  seeds  be  planted  as  soon  as  they  are  taken  from  the  core, 
they  will  often  germinate,  and  appear  in  the  seed-leaf  in 
eight  to  twenty  days,  according  to  the  moisture  and  warmth 
of  the  seed-bed.  We  have  taken  seeds  from  an  apple,  plant- 
ed them  in  a  mellow-bed,  in  June,  some  of  which  germina- 
ted immediately,  and  others  remained  in  the  ground  till  the 
following  spring.  Some  pomologists  contend  that  apple- 
seeds,  and  seeds  of  other  fruits,  should  be  buried  in  the 
fruit.  But  as  there  is  usually  a  chance  to  select  the  best 
kernels  if  the  cores  are  first  dissected,  which  is  quite  as 
important  as  to  choose  the  most  desirable  ears  of  Indian 
corn  for  seed,  when  this  is  done,  the  fruit  should  be  cut  in 
quarters,  the  inferior  kernels  separated,  one  or  two  of  the 
largest  and  plumpest  returned  to  the  core,  and  the  entire 
apple  buried  about  two  inches  deep  in  a  mellow  seed-bed. 

Raising  Seedlings. — The  practice  of  raising  seedlings,  or 
young  stocks,  from  the  seeds  by  planting  the  half-developed 
kernels  of  the  half-grown  and  half-matured  fruit  of  a  miser- 
able variety  of  the  poorest  kinds  of  cider- apples,  which 
swine  would  almost  refuse  to  eat,  is  about  like  attempting 
to  produce  fine  cattle  from  the  meanest  and  most  miserable 
scrub  that  could  be  found  in  the  country.     Like  will  pro- 


FEOPA  GATING  APPLE-TREES.  21 

duce  like.  The  stock  of  a  grafted  tree  will  exert  a  won- 
derful influence  on  the  productiveness  of  the  bearing  tree. 
(See  Glossary.)  It  can  not  be  expected  that  the  half-de- 
veloped seed  of  a  half-grown  and  half-ripened,  small,  knot- 
ty, scabby,  one-sided,  worthless  apple  can  ever  produce  a 
fine  and  prolific  tree.  Is  it  possible  for  apple-seeds  to  im- 
part certain  prominent  characteristics  of  excellence  to  the 
future  tree  and  fruit,  which  were  never  possessed  by  that 
variety  ?  The  truth  is,  that  the  best  seeds  must  be  select- 
ed for  fruit-trees,  and  the  inferior  kernels  rejected,  if  we 
would  produce  hardy  and  prolific  trees. 

How  Apple-seeds  vegetate. — An  apple-seed  germinates 
like  the  kernels  of  leguminous  plants,  such  as  beans,  clo- 
ver, and  flax.  The  embryo  (Fig.  1)  expands, 
and  a  radicle  appears  at  the  pointed  end  of  the 
seed,  which  grows  downward,  as  the  stem  is 
formed  upward.  Instead  of  a  spike  being  sent 
to  the  surface  of  the  ground,  such  as  appears 
from  a  kernel  of  cereal  grain,  the  apple-seed  is 
thrust  upward,  on  the  end  of  the  stem,  through 
the  soil,  to  the  surface  of  the  ground.  This  Enlarged  view 
fact  suggests  the  eminent  importance  of  cover-  of  au  app£ 
ing  every  seed  with  fine  mould  or  mellow  earth.  ^^^ 
A  covering  of  heavy  clay  will  often  become  so  compact 
that  the  stem  can  not  elevate  the  kernel  to  the  surface.  As 
soon  as  the  apple-seed  appears  above  the  surface  of  the 
seed-bed,  the  kernel  separates  into  two  equal  parts,  each 
portion  being  held  by  the  stem ;  and  the  two  lobes  assume 
the  form  of  leaves.  Xhe  accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  2, 
p.  22)  is  a  fair  representation  of  a  young  apple-tree  soon 
after  the  kernel  has  appeared  above  the  surface. 

There  are  several  fundamental  requirements  to  be  ob- 
served by  the  tiller  of  the  soil,  in  order  to  effect  the  germi- 
nation of  apple-seeds.     In  the  first  place,  a  certain  amount 


22 


THE  APFLE  VULTURIST. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


of  moisture  must  reach  the  germ.  If  the 
external  coating  of  the  seed  has  been  al- 
lowed to  become  very  dry  and  hard,  seeds 
will  often  remain  in  the  soil,  if  planted  in 
the  spring,  until  the  next  spring,  before  the 
tough  shell  will  permit  moisture  to  quick- 
en the  germ.  When  apple,  locust,  and  oth- 
er seeds  have  become  dry, 
let  them  be  thrown  for  ten 
seconds  or  so  into  boiling 
water,  then  turned  quickly 
into  cold  water,  repeating 
the  process  twice  or  thrice, 
.    until  the  hard  shell  is  soft- 

A  young  apple-tree  in 

the  seed-leaf.  ened,  and  the  seed  will  ger- 
minate in  a  few  days  after  they  are  planted. 
By  a  short  and  quick  scald,  and  sudden  cool- 
ing, the  heat  does  not  have  time  to  reach 
the  germ.  But  let  me  caution  every  be- 
ginner against  the  mistake  that  a  celebrated 
agricultural  editor  once  made  in  boiling  his 
seeds  for  several  hours,  to  soften  the  hard 
shells.  The  shells  of  chestnuts,  butternuts, 
and  other  nuts,  as  well  as  peach  and  plum 
pits,  are  so  impervious  to  water,  that  moist- 
ure can  not  reach  the  germs.  Hence  the  necessity  of  soak- 
ing a  long  time,  and  exposing  these  to  the  action  of  frost, 
in  damp  mould,  or  sand,  so  that  the  glue  which  unites  the 
two  parts  of  a  shell  may  be  dissolved,  thus  permitting  the 
moisture  to  reach  the  embryo  or  germs. 

Another  indispensable  requisite  is  heat  in  connection  with 
moisture.  Gentle  warmth  alone  can  not  produce  germina- 
tion ;  neither  can  moisture  alone  cause  a  seed  to  germinate. 
The  two — moisture  and  heat — must  exist  in  a  proper  de- 


A  diminished  view  of 
a  young  apple-tree 
after  a  few  inches 
in  length  of  the 
phimule  have  ap- 
peared. 


PJtOPAQATING  APFLE-TREEH.  23 

gree,  or  apple-seeds  will  never  germinate.  Still  another 
condition  essential  to  germination  is  warm  air.  Apple- 
seeds,  if  buried  too  deep,  where  they  are  supplied  with 
moisture  and  heat,  without  air,  will  soon  mould  and  decay. 
Three  things,  then,  must  all  combine  harmoniously  to  pro- 
mote germination,  or  an  apple-tree  can  never  be  produced 
from  a  seed. 

Propagation  by  Grafting. 

But  when  the  smoother  stem  from  knots  is  free, 

We  make  a  deep  incision  in  the  tree; 

And  in  the  solid  wood  the  slip  inclose, 

Where  it  unites  and  shoots  again,  and  grows.  — Vikqil. 

Grafting  is  the  insertion  of  a  cion  in  a  living  stock. 
The  philosophy  of  grafting  consists  in  making  a  cleft,  or 
slit,  in  the  end  or  side  of  the  stock,  and  fitting  one  end  of 
the  cion  to  the  cleft  so  neatly  that  the  pores  between  the 
bark  and  the  wood  of  the  cion  will  correspond  with  the 
similar  pores  in  the  stock.  When  cions  are  inserted  in  a 
stock  in  this  manner,  they  can  scarcely  fail  to  grow.  It  is 
of  little  consequence  how  a  cion  is  grafted,  provided  the 
inside  bark  of  both  cion  and  stock  coincide,  so  that  the 
flowing  sap  may  readily  pass  from  the  stock  into  the  cion. 
But  the  cion  and  stock  must  be  united  with  such  precision 
that  the  surface  of  one  will  fit  the  surface  of  the  other,  wa- 
ter-tight. When  a  bad  fit  is  made,  the  surface  will  soon 
oxidize,  and  prevent 'all  union. 

Modes  of  Grafting. — The  different  modes  of  grafting  are 
alluded  to  as  cleft  grafting,  whip  grafting,  American  whip- 
tongue  grafting,  splice  grafting,  shoulder  or  chink  grafting, 
crown  grafting,  saddle  grafting,  side  grafting,  dovetail-side 
grafting,  summer  grafting,  root  grafting,  stock  grafting, 
spur  grafting,  and  grafting  by  approach,  or  inarching, 
which  is  a  curious  way  of  attaching  a  portion  of  the  cion 
to  the  stock  to  which  it  is  to  be  united,  while  another  por- 
tion still  remains  on  the  parent  stem.     Branches  of  two 


24  TUJi]  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

different  trees  may  be  united  at  the  extremities,  "  by  ap- 
proach," like  Fig.  23,  if  the  parts  be  neatly  fitted,  and  held 
firmly  by  means  of  splints,  until  the  union  is  complete. 
The  different  modes  will  be  shown  by  illustrations. 

Grafting  into  different  Species. — Beginners  who  do  not 
possess  a  correct  understanding  of  the  laws  of  both  vege- 
table and  animal  physiology  are  often  ambitious  to  try  ex- 
periments in  grafting  or  budding  a  given  kind  of  fruit  on 
a  tree  of  some  other  species.  In  numerous  instances,  by 
not  understanding  what  can  be  done,  and  what  is  imprac- 
ticable, they  have  committed  ludicrous  blunders.  As  stated 
under  Species,  apples  may  be  produced  by  inserting  apple- 
tree  cions,  or  buds,  in  a  pear-stock.  And  pears,  in  the  same 
manner,  may  be  produced  on  apple-stocks.  We  have  often 
seen  pear-cions  inserted  in  "  thorn-apple  "  stocks ;  and  have 
frequently  read  recommendations,  by  writers  on  pomology, 
as  to  grafting  pears  on  thorn-stocks.  But  we  have  never 
met  with,  nor  read  of,  satisfactory  success  in  such  experi- 
ments. Pears  and  quinces,  also,  belong  to  different  species 
of  fruit;  and  yet  the  product  of  pear-cions  on  a  quince- 
stock  is  a  satisfactory  success.  Apples,  pears,  and  quinces 
have  so  little  aflinity  with  peaches  and  plums,  that  they 
can  not  be  produced  on  a  peach  or  plum  stock.  Nor  can 
peaches  or  plums  be  produced  on  apple-stocks. 

Apple-cions  may  be  set  in  the  maple  or  willow;  but 
were  they  to  live  and  grow  the  branches  would  never  yield 
fruit.  We  have  frequently  seen  it  stated,  in  agricultural 
journals,  that  apples  and  pears  have  been  produced  satis- 
factorily on  the  young  stocks  of  the  mountain  ash;  but 
we  have  never  met  with  a  person  who  has  seen  the  fruit. 
A  gentleman  near  Goshen,  N.  Y.,  assured  us  that  he  had 
been  successful  in  grafting  the  cions  of  the  English  walnut 
on  his  young  sweet -walnut -trees.  But  walnuts  will  not 
grow  on  the  chestnut  or  butternut  trees,  nor,  vice  versa; 


PROPAGATING  APPLE-TBEES. 


25 


simply  because  there  is  not  sufficient  affinity  between  the 
stocks  and  the  cions. 


FAMEtrSE. 

Synonyms.— Pomva.Q  de  Heige,  Sanguineus,  Snow.  Frm<.— Size,  medium ;  form, 
roundish,  somewhat  flattened;  skin,  smooth;  color,  a  greenish-yellow  ground, 
mostly  overspread  in  the  sun  with  a  clean,  rich  red;  in  the  shade  the  red  is  pale, 
streaked,  and  blotched  with  the  dark  red ;  stem,  slender ;  cavity,  narrow  and  fun- 
nel-shaped ;  calyx,  small ;  basin,  narrow  and  shallow ;  flesh,  remarkably  white, 
tender,  juicy,  negative  character,  but  deliciously  pleasant,  with  a  slight  perfume ; 
core,  close,  small,  compact ;  seeds,  light  brown,  long  and  pointed ;  season,  Octo- 
ber, and  to  December.  Tree. — Hardy,  healthy,  moderate  grower,  of  a  rather  di- 
verging habit,  with  dark-colored  shoots,  and  long,  narrow  leaves,  bearing  annu- 
ally a  fair  crop,  with  a  profusion  in  alternate  years. 

Propagating  by  Root-grafting. — Volumes  have  been  writ- 
ten touching  this  subject,  to  show  that  root-grafted  trees 
will  not  endure  so  long  as  other  trees  which  have  sprung 
from  grafted  stocks.  In  many  of  our  Western  States,  re- 
ports have  been  made  by  practical  pomologists,  who  have 
instituted  inquiries  and  numerous  experiments  to  test  the 
duration  of  such  trees;  and  in  most  instances  that  have 
come  under  our  observation,  root-grafted  orchards  have 
nearly  all  failed  after  a  few  years,  especially  on  large  prai- 
ries.    In  some  instances,  there  has  been  no  apparent  differ- 

2 


26  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

ence,  which  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  in  these 
cases  strong  tap-roots  were  sent  down  deep  into  the  sub- 
soil, which  supplied  the  growing  trees  with  suflScient  moist- 
ure. It  will  doubtless  be  found  that,  when  root-grafted 
trees  fail,  they  are  destitute  of  tap-roots,  or  large-branch- 
ing roots,  to  supply  moisture  in  dry  weather,  when  the 
roots  near  the  surface  of  the  ground  can  not  obtain  the 
necessary  amount. 

Any  one  at  all  conversant  wdth  the  habit  of  the  different 
varieties  of  apple-trees  knows  that  there  is  a  great  differ- 
ence in  the  growth  and  hardihood  of  the  original  stock. 
This  subject  is  not  half  enough  considered  by  the  orchard- 
ist.  Let  him  go  into  a  nursery  where  all  the  different  vari- 
eties are  growing  in  a  good  soil,  each  shading  and  protect- 
ing the  other  thickly  in  the  rows,  under  good,  and  frequent- 
ly forced  cultivation,  and  he  will  at  once  suppose  they  are 
all  alike  thrifty,  hardy,  and  promising.  But  such  is  only 
the  fact  while  in  the  nursery.  Some  varieties  are  tender, 
slow  of  growth,  and  never  hardy  when  exposed  in  the 
orchard  to  the  fierce  heats  and  cold  blasts  which  alternate- 
ly shine  upon  and  sweep  over  them.  Other  varieties 
are  hardy,  vigorous,  and  stalwart  under  all  circumstances. 
Others  still  there  are  which  bend  and  writhe  about,  scarce- 
ly knowing  which  way  to  grow.  These  different  modes 
of  growth  are  original  properties  of  the  wood  itself,  nat- 
ural, organic,  and  only  to  be  corrected  or  overcome  by  care 
and  attention  in  the  subsequent  training  of  the  trees. 

An  intelligent  pomologist  writes  that  the  result  of  this 
process  of  raising  trees  by  root-grafting  is,  that  after  ten 
or  twelve  years  standing  in  the  orchard,  with  equal  care 
and  cultivation,  some  trees  are  twice  or  thrice  the  size  of 
others.  Some  are  feeble  and  decaying,  from  innate  weak- 
ness or  exposure  to  outside  influences;  while  others  are 
strong  and  vigorous  as  oaks  or  maples.     We  think  it  will 


PROPAGATINO  APPLE-TREES. 


27 


be  proved,  as  a  rule^  that  fruits  of  high  quality  are  usual- 
ly more  refined  and  delicate  in  their  wood  than  those  of 
coarser  and  harsher  taste ;  that  the  common  seedling  is  usu- 
ally hardier  in  its  stock  than  the  highly  cultivated  "  graft ;" 
and,  therefore,  that  the  common  seedling  reared  up  to  a 
size  fit  for  transplanting  into  the  orchard,  and  then  grafted 
branch  high,  or  at  the  point  where  its  limbs  diverge  into 
the  branching  top,  is  better  as  stock  than  those  which  are 
root-grafted. 


WESTFIELD   BEEK-NO-FirBTHBB. 

(S^/nonyTTW.— Seek-no-further,  Red  Winter  Pearmain,  Connecticut  Seek-no-far- 
ther. Fruit.— ^\ze,  medium  ;  form,  regular  roundish  conical,  broad  at  base  ;  color, 
generally  a  light  yellow  ground,  with  the  sunny  sides  striped  and  splashed  with 
red  ;  small  russet  dots,  surrounded  with  shades  of  a  light  russet-yellow  ;  there  is 
often  considerable  russet  around  both  stem  and  calyx ;  stem,  long  and  slender ; 
cavity,  open,  regular  ;  calyx,  usually  small,  and  generally  closed,  or  nearly  so ;  it 
is,  however,  sometimes  partially  open,  and  always  with  short  segments ;  basin, 
regular  in  form,  and  of  moderate  depth ;  flesh,  yellowish,  tender,  sub-acid,  with  a 
pleasant  Pearmain  aroma ;  core,  medium ;  seeds,  ovate.  Season,  November  to 
March. 


28  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

A  hundred  years  ago,  pomologists  seldom  thought  of 
propagating  apple-trees  by  root-grafting.  When  they  ate 
a  good  apple,  their  first  idea  was  to  plant  the  seed.  By  this 
practice,  and  by  not  cutting  off  the  tap-roots,  they  obtained 
trees  that  were  bountifully  productive  for  a  long  time.  The 
bare  fact  that  pomologists  have  had  occasion  to  feel  assured 
that  root-grafted  trees  are  sometimes  not  so  productive  as 
seedhng  stocks,  should  be  sufficient  reason  for  abandoning 
entirely  that  manner  of  propagation. 

This  question  has  been  discussed  extensively  in  Illinois ; 
and  many  intelligent  pomologists  would  not  accept  root- 
grafted  trees  as  a  gratuity.  One  gentleman  stated  at  the 
pomological  convention  that  he  had  made  observations  for 
several  years,  and  had  come  to  the  conclusion  that,  for  that 
region,  trees  worked  standard  high  are  better  worth  a  dol- 
lar a  tree  than  such  as  are  root-grafted  with  a  dollar  as  a 
gratuity.  He  had  found  such  shy  bearers  as  Early  Harvest, 
Pryor's  Red,  etc.,  to  bear  well  when  worked  on  stocks.  The 
rule  had  been  found  general,  with  some  exceptions.  He 
had  found  budded  trees  to  bear  good  crops  in  six  to  eight 
years.  He  mentioned  cases  where  the  Swaar  and  Baldwin, 
when  root-grafted,  had  not  borne  in  fifteen  years.  Other 
trees,  budded  fi'om  good  bearers,  had  borne  good  crops  in 
seven  years.  He  had  never  found  a  productive  Rhode 
Island  Greening  tree,  when  root-grafted,  at  any  age ;  but 
stock-grafted  trees  were  always  productive,  when  old  enough 
for  bearing. 

Side  or  Summer-grafting.  —  This  mode  of  grafting  is 
known  to  very  few  persons ;  and  yet  it  is  superior  to  every 
other  method.  It  is  in  a  large  degree  free  from  the  objec- 
tions urged  against  cleft-grafting,  and  is  so  simple  and  easi- 
ly executed,  that  the  merest  novice,  armed  with  a  knife, 
string,  grafting-wax,  and  a  piece  of  soap,  can  graft  a  tree  as 
well  as  the  professional  propagator. 


PBOPAOATINQ  APPLE-TREES. 


29 


Fio:.  4. 


stock  aud  ciou  for 
side-grafting. 


When  a  cion  is  to  be  set  on  the  side  of  a  branch,  or  small 
tree,  make  a  slit  on  the  stock,  precisely  as  when  a  bud  is 
to  be  inserted,  as  represented  by  the  illus- 
tration (Fig.  4).  Next,  commencing  at  the 
top  of  the  slit,  raise  the  bark  on  each  side, 
to  admit  the  lower  end  of  the  cion,  which 
should  be  prepared  before  the  slit  is  made. 
The  cion  should  be  short,  not  more  than  two 
inches  long.  One  bud  on  it  will  suflSce.  A 
long  cion  is  more  liable  to  get  displaced  than 
a  short  one.  Shave  off  the  lower  end  true, 
and  with  a  sloping  cut,  as  shown  by  Fig. 
4  herewith  given,  and  crowd  the  prepared 
end  down  in  the  slit,  in  the  same  naanner 
that  a  bud  is  inserted.  The  end  of  the  cion 
should  fit  neatly.  If  the  stock  be  small,  the 
end  of  the  cion  may  be  hollowed  out  a  trifle  with  a  small, 
sharp  gouge.  It  will  be  necessary  to  touch  the  edges  of 
the  slit  made  for  the  reception  of  the  graft  Fig.  5. 
with  a  piece  of  soap ;  otherwise  root-lice,  which 
are  in  the  tops  of  the  trees  in  summer,  will 
enter  the  wound,  and  prevent  the  union  of  the 
stock  and  graft.  Now  bind  the  parts  together, 
using  strong  cotton  twine  for  large  branches, 
or,  for  small  ones,  strong,  coarse,  woollen  yarn, 
or  such  materials  as  are  used  in  budding.  The 
accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  5)  represents  a 
stock  just  grafted  in  this  manner.  After  the 
ligature  is  tied,  cover  the  wound  with  a  thin 
plaster  of  wax.  Good  cions,  neatly  fitted,  if 
inserted  at  the  time  the  annual  layer  of  new  ^-^ 
wood  is  being  made,  will  unite  with  the  limbs 
as  readily  as  buds.  One  of  the  eminent  advantages  of  side- 
grafting  is,  that  a  new  branch  may  be  started  on  the  side 


Side-grafting. 


30 


THE  APPLE  CULTUBIST. 


Fig.  6. 


of  a  tree,  or  limb,  where  there  are  no  branches,  and  where 
it  is  desirable  to  fill  up  with  a  limb  any  naked  space,  for  the 
sake  of  symmetry. 
Another  Mode  of  Side-grafting  is  performed  by  cutting 
off  the  branch,  or  the  stock  to  be  grafted,  the 
same  as  for  cleft-grafting.  Then,  instead  of 
splitting  the  stock,  make  a  cleft,  or  recess,  for 
the  cion  (Fig.  6),  with  a  back-saw,  as  represent- 
ed below  (Fig.  8),  which  has  a  thin  blade  at- 
tached near  the  ends  of  the  saw,  for  shaving 
off  the  sides  of  the  saw-kerf  true  and  smooth, 
as  fast  as  the  saw  enters  the  stock.  Fig.  t. 
Such  a  saw  may  be  satisfactorily 
employed  for  grafting  grapes  and 
other  kinds  of  fruit.  It  matters  not 
how  the  cleft  is  made,  if  the  inside 
bark  of  the  cion  fits  neatly,  with  a 
gentle  pressure,  to  the  inside  bark 
of  the  stock.  When  a  stock  is  two  or  more 
inches  in  diameter,  six  or  more  cions  may  be  set 
around  the  edge  without  splitting  the  end.  The 
ends  of  the  cions  (Fig.  V)  must  be  fitted  true 
with  a  sharp  knife,  and  be  pressed  into  the  cleft 
firmly.  After  the  cions  are  set,  apply  a  coat  of  ^  cion  formed 
grafting-wax  that  will  not  melt  and  run  down  f5*^e -^graS 
in  hot  weather.  Success  in  side-grafting  will  ^"g- 
always  depend  more  on  skill  in  fitting  the  cion  to  the  stock 
than  in  any  thing  else.  Side-grafting  also  possesses  this 
very  important  ad- 
vantage over  cleft- 
grafting  :  the  cions, 
when  set  in  a  large 
stock,  are  frequent- 


Fig.  8. 

Illllillillllllllillllillllliiillllllllilllllli 


'y*>!jjiij.'Ai-kii!jJii»>!*iii'i. 


ly  crushed    by  the 


A  grafting-saw,  with  blades  for  shaving  out  the  sides 
of  the  recess  like  Fig.  6. 


PROPAQATINO  APPLE-TUEEti. 


31 


Fior.  9. 


jaws  of  the  stock,  so  that  there  is  no  vitality  left  in  the  part 
of  the  cion  within  the  cleft.  Large  numbers  of  cions  are 
destroyed  by  this  means.  When  cions  fail  in  cleft-grafting, 
rain  enters  the  fissure,  the  cleft  opens,  and  the  end  of  the 
limb  decays,  to  the  serious  injury  of  the  tree.  When  fitting 
cions  for  this  kind  of  side-grafting,  it  is  important  to  pare 
the  end  of  the  stock  smoothly  with  a  sharp  knife;  then 
make  a  shoulder  on  both  sides  of  the  cion  and  cut  and  fit 
until  the  shoulder  on  both  sides  will  set  down  tight  to  the 
inner  bark  of  the  stock.  A  cion  will  rarely  fail  to  grow,  if 
there  is  a  good  fit  at  the  shoulder. 

Dovetail  Side-grafting. — I  have  never  known  a  more  suc- 
cessful mode  of  grafting  both  apple  and  pear  stocks  than 
this,  which  is  more  particularly  adapted 
to  large  stocks  with  thick  bark  than 
to  small  ones.  The  stock  is  sawed  off 
squarely,  the  end  shaved  smoothly,  and 
dovetailed  gains  cut  in  the  bark  for  the 
cions,  as  shown  in  the  illustration  (Fig. 
9),  representing  the  cleft  or  gain  in  the 
bark.  A  narrow  strip  of  bark,  say  one 
inch  long  by  one-sixteenth  or  so  wide, 
is  removed.  Then,  as  the  knife-blade 
is  guided  by  a  small  straight-edge,  to 
aid  in  making  a  straight  cut,  the  edge 
of  the  bark  is  bevelled  on  both  sides 

of   the   gain,  so  as   to   give  the   cleft   a     Dovetail  side-grafting. 

dovetail  form  for  holding  the  cion.  The  width  of  the  gain 
or  cleft  should  depend  on  the  size  of  the  cion.  Fit  the 
lower  end  of  the  cion,  as  represented  by  the  illustration,  by 
cutting  away  about  one-half  true  and  smooth,  with  a  square 
shoulder.  Then  shave  off  each  side,  true,  down  to  the  in- 
side bark  of  the  cion.  If  the  gain  be  too  narrow,  dress  it 
a  trifle  wider.     In  case  a  gain  is  made  too  wide,  prepare 


32 


THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 


A  stock  crown 
side-grafted. 


Fig.  10.  another  cion.  The  cion  should  fit  so  neatly 
that  the  end  may  be  pressed  down  into  the 
gain  as  tightly  as  practicable  without  lifting 
the  bark  of  the  stock.  See  that  the  end  of  the 
cion  fits  well  to  the  bottom  of  the  gain,  and 
also  that  the  shoulder  sets  down  tight  on  the 
end  of  the  stock.  Several  cions  should  be  set 
in  one  large  stock,  like  Fig.  10.  If  the  grafting 
is  performed  when  the  cambium  is  abundant, 
almost  every  cion  will  live.  Let  the  wounds 
be  covered  at  once  with  a  coat  of  wax.  In 
most  instances,  it  will  be  advisable  to  wraj^ 
several  thicknesses  of  prepared  ligament  around 
the  stock  after  a  thin  coat  of  wax  is  applied. 

Spur-grafting. — This  mode  of  grafting  is  practised  but 
little.  We  have  set  cions  according  to  this  style ;  but  they 
are  not  as  likely  to  live  as  by  side-grafting.  Hence  it  is 
alluded  to  simply  to  show  how  grafts  are  set  in  this  manner. 
Procure  a  "firmer"  chisel,  say  three-eighths  of  an  inch 
wide,  grind  the  edge  in  the  form  of  a  round-pointed  spear. 
Drive  this  instrument  perpendiculary  down  through  a  grow- 
ing root  of  an  apple-tree,  withdraw  it,  crowd  in  a  cion  hav- 
ing a  wedge-shaped  end,  cover  the  wound  with  wax,  and 
the  cion  is  ready  to  grow.  The  tool  must  be  sharp  and 
smooth,  so  as  to  make  a  clean  cut;  and  the  cion  must  be 
crowded  in  quickly,  before  the  fissure  closes.  Let  the  tool 
be  driven  into  the  limb  of  a  tree  in  the  same  manner,  and  a 
cion  inserted.  Cions  should  be  set  in  this  manner  when 
the  cambium  is  abundant.  But  even  under  the  most  fa- 
vorable circumstances,  side-grafting  will  be  found  prefera- 
ble to  this  method. 

Cleft-grafting. — The  usual  manner  of  grafting  stocks  from 
one  to  three  inches  in  diameter  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  11,  p. 
33.     The  stock,  b,  is  first  sawed  off  with  a  fine-toothed  saw. 


PROPAGATING  APPLE-TBEES. 


33 


like  Fig.  8,  when  the  end  of  the  stock  -pig.  ii. 

is  shaved  smoothly,  so  that  one  can 
readily  see  the  point  of  union  between 
the  bark  and  the  wood.  The  blade  of 
the  grafting-knife,  shown  below  (Fig. 
12),  is  then  driven  into  the  stock,  5, 
to  split  it,  as  represented.  After  the 
stock  is  split,  the  chisel,  or  wedge  of 
the  knife,  is  driven  in  the  middle  of  the 
cleft,  to  hold  it  open  while  the  cions,  a, 
are  being  set.  The  blade  of  Fig.  12 
should  be  about  six  inches  long,  be- 
sides the  handle.  The  heavy  part, 
which  constitutes  the  head  of  the  chis-  cieft-giaftiug. 

el,  should  be  about  three  eighths  of  an  inch  square,  and  the 
chisel  should  extend  about  one  inch  below  the  shoulder. 
The  chisel  at  the  base  should  be  one-eighth  of  an  inch  thick, 
which  will  be  sufficiently  thick  to  open  any  cleft,  except  for 
a  very  large  stock.  This  combined  tool  will  be  found  more 
convenient  than  to  have  the  chisel  at  the  end  of  the  knife, 
as  it  will  maintain  the  balance  with  less  difficulty.     The 

blade  should  be  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch 
thick  on  the  back. 
A  wire  hook  is  pro- 
vided in  the  handle 

for  suspending  the 
Grafting-knife  and  chiseL  ^      i  i*  i  i 

tool  irom  a  branch 

when  a  person  is  grafting  the  top  of  a  large  tree.  The  ci- 
ons, a,  are  dressed  off  true,  like  a  long  wedge,  and  inserted 
so  that  the  point  of  union  between  the  bark  and  wood,  on 
both  the  stock  and  cions,  will  exactly  coincide.  A  sharp 
knife  should  be  employed  for  making  cions,  and  the  ends 
should  not  be  dressed  too  blunt  nor  too  slim  to  fit  the  cleft. 

2* 


34 


THE  APPLE  CVLTUBI8T. 


Pig.  14. 


Fig.  13.  Many  times  the  stock  will  close  so  firmly  on  the 
cions,  as  has  already  been  stated,  as  to  crush  the 
ends.  The  grafter,  when  removing  the  chisel, 
must  watch  the  pressure  of  the  sides  of  the 
stock  on  the  cions ;  and  if  the  ends  are  liable  to 
be  crushed,  a  small  wedge,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  13,  must  be  driven  in  by  the 
side  of  the  chisel,  so  that  the  cions 
may  not  be  injured.  Graf  ting- wax 
is  now  applied,  as  represented  by 
Fig.  14,  by  pressing  it  into  all  the 
crevices,  and  covering  the  wound  be- 
tween the  grafts.  Great  care  must 
Cleft  held  open  ^^  observed,  after  cions  are  set,  not 
by  a  wedge.     ^^  ^^^^  ^^^^^     ^1^.  15  represents 

a  small  stock  cleft-grafted,  with  only  one  cion,  , .  -^  ^m 
made  with  a  shoulder,  as  shown  by  Fig.  16.^^^^^^ 
Pig,  15.  The  cion  should  be  set,  and  «SSk  co?eSci 

taken  out,  and  fitted  with  a    with  wax. 

sharp  knife  until  each  shoulder  will  set 


Fig.  16. 


Fior.  IT. 


down  to  the  stock  water- 
tight. Then  the  cion  will 
scarcely  fail  to  live. 

Figure  17  represents  the 
manner  in  which  small  trees 
are  often  grafted.  A  cion, 
h,  about  two  inches  long,  is 
fitted,  as  shown,  to  the  stock, 
a.  If  the  cuts  are  made  true 
and  smooth,  and  the  two 
parts  be  properly  united,  a 
graft  seldom  fails  to  grow. 
The  cion  is  bound  to  the  stock  with  grafting- 
wax,  which  will  hold  it  in  the  proper  position  Spiice-grafting. 


Cleft-grafting,  with  a 
shouldered  cion. 


PROPAOATING  APPLE-TREES. 


35 


until  a  union  is  effected.  The  wax  for  this  purpose  should 
be  tempered  with  a  larger  proportion  of  resin,  so  that  it 
will  be  hard  after  it  is  applied  to  the  wound. 

By  the  different  parts  of  Fig.  18,  American  whip-tongue- 
grafting  is  represented  in  the  various  stages.     The  parts 

Fig.  18. 


|1 '     y 
American  whip-tongue-graftmg. 

shown  at  a,  5,  c,  represent  a  stock  prepared  for  the  cion, 
f,  e.  At  k  and  I,  the  stock  and  cion  are  united.  At  h,  the 
ligature  is  applied.  At  ^,  the  work  is  shown  covered  with 
grafting-wax.  After  the  graft  has  begun  to  grow,  a  sharp 
knife  should  be  drawn  through  the  back  part  of  ^,  to  cut 
the  bandage.  Then  the  growth  of  the  wood  will  not  be 
obstructed.  It  is  eminently  important  that  every  stock 
grafted  in  the  foregoing  manner  should  be  examined  in 
ten  days  after  the  cions  are  set,  for  the  purpose  of  re-graft- 
ing, where  the  cions  fail  to  grow,  and  also  to  release  the 
ligature.  When  stocks  are  very  thrifty,  the  grafts  will  fre- 
quently expand,  in  a  few  days,  to  such  an  extent  as  to  bury 


36 


THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 


Fig.  20. 


Fig.  19.  the  strands  of  the  twine  into 

the  tender  bark,  to  the  serious 
injury  of  both  stock  and  graft. 
Fig.  19  represents  another 
plan  of  American  whip-tongue- 
grafting,  in  which  a  is  a  cion, 
b  a  stock.  At  c  the  cion  and 
stock  are  united.  At  d  the 
union  is  wrapped  with  a  nar- 
row strip  of 
cloth  satu- 
rated with 
grafting- 
wax.  Fig- 
ure 20  rep- 
American  whip-tongne-grafting.        rCSentS  Still 

another  style  of  whip-grafting,  in  which 
a  is  the  stock,  h  the  cion,  and  c  /''"^\ 
the  two  united,  ready  for  the  wax. 

Before  a  person  '  attempts  to 
graft  valuable  stocks  by  whip- 
grafting,  he  should  procure  a  bun- 
dle of  twigs  and  a  sharp  knife,  and 
spend  one  or  two  hours  during  his 
leisure  evenings  in  educating  his 
hands  to  handle  a  sharp  knife  with 
skill  and  precision,  in  making 
"  neat  fits  "  between  the  stock  and 
cion.  It  will  be  found  a  great  con- 
venience, also,  to  employ  a  small 
stick  having  a  groove  on  one  side, 
into  which  the  stock,  or  the  cion,  whip-grafting  large  stocks. 
may  be  placed  when  the  end  is  being  dressed  off. 

At  Fig.  21,  on  the  following  page,  a  style  of  saddle-graft- 


PROPAOATINQ  APrLE-TMEES. 


31 


ing  is  shown,  which  will  require  no 
explanation,  as  the  illustrations  show 
how  the  fitting  of  cion  and  stock  is 
done.  Fig.  22,  below,  represents  the 
manner  of  saddle-grafting  stocks  that 
are  larger  than  the  cions.  The  butt- 
end  of  each  cion  is  split,  shaved,  and 
made  to  fit  neatly  to  the  stock,  as 
shown.  In  some  places,  one  piece  is 
held  down  to  the  stock  by  means  of 
small  nails,  or  upholsterers'  trimming- 
tacks.  This  latter  style  of  grafting  is 
practised  but  little;  and  it  is  repre- 
sented here  more  for  the  novelty  than 
for  its  utility.     One  great  advantage 


Fig.  21. 


Saddle-grafting  small 
stocks. 


Fig.  22. 


Saddle-grafting  large  stocks. 


of  setting  grafts  like  Fig. 
21,  is,  no  bandage  will  be 
required  to  hold  the  cion 
on  the  stock.  Good  wax 
is  all  that  will  be  nec- 
essary. When  stocks 
are  grafted  where  they 
sprang  from  the  seed,  and 
where  the  apple-trees  are 
to  grow,  if  the  cions  are 
fitted  neatly,  like  Fig.  21, 
they  seldom  fail  to  grow 
rapidly. 

At  Fig.  23,  represent- 
ed on  the  following  page, 
the  tops  of  two  small 
trees  are  brought  togeth- 
er, and  the  side  of  each 
one  shaved  off  true,  so  as 


38 


THE  APPLE  CULTUBIST. 


Fig.  24. 


to  make  a  close  union,  when  the  parts  are 
bound  securely  and  covered  with  wax, 
and  the  tops  are  held  apart,  and  in  the 
desired  place,  by  a  stay  bound  from  tree 
to  tree.  At  Fig.  24  the  manner  of  in- 
arching is  represented,  which  will  re- 
quire no  further 
elucidation  than 
the  cut  will  give. 
Inarching  is  fre- 
quently employ- 
ed to  connect 
the  ends  of  two 
branches  above 
the  fork  of  a 
valuable  tree,  to 


Inarching,  or  grafting  by  ap- 
proach. 


Grafting  by  approach. 

prevent  one  or  both  sides  from  be- 
ing split  down  by  a  furious  wind. 
The  two  parts  to  be  united  must  be 
held  by  means  of  stiff  splints  of  wood,  until  the  union  is 
perfect  and  strong. 

Inoculation,  or  Budding. 

In  that  smooth  space  a  narrow  slit  we  make, 
Then  living  buds  from  bearing  trees  we  take: 
Inserted  thus,  the  wounded  bark  we  close, 
In  whose  moist  womb  the  tender  infant  grows. 

Deyden's  Virgil. 

The  operation  of  budding  consists  in  cutting  a  bud  from 
a  young  twig  and  inserting  it  beneath  the  bark  of  another 
branch,  or  in  bringing  the  bud  and  stock  together  in  such  a 
manner  that  a  union  will  readily  take  place  between  the 
two.  The  future  tree  and  fruit  will  always  partake  of  the 
character  of  the  tree  from  which  the  bud  was  taken. 

Satisfactory  success  in  budding  will  always  depend  on  sev- 
eral contingencies;  such  as,  1.  The  condition  of  the  stock 


PROPAOATINQ  APPLE-TREES.  39 

and  bud.  Budding  can  not  be  performed  successfully  when 
the  bark  of  the  stock  will  not  peel  easily.  Buds  must  be 
set  when  there  is  a  bountiful  supply  of  cambium^  or  muci- 
laginous material  in  a  semi-fluid  state  between  the  bark 
and  the  wood  of  the  stock,  to  facilitate  the  vital  adhesion 
of  the  bud.  By  making  a  slit  in  the  bark  of  the  stock, 
one  can  readily  perceive  whether  the  cambium  has  become 
too  hard  to  unite  with  the  bud,  or  whether  the  supply  is 
still  insufficient  to  effect  a  union.  2.  Varieties  of  the  same 
species  are  always  more  successful  than  a  bud  taken  from 
a  branch  which  is  not  closely  allied  to  the  stock.  Apple- 
buds  should  be  inserted  on  apple-stocks,  pear-buds  on  pear- 
stocks,  and  peach-buds  on  young  peach-trees.  3.  The  bud 
should  always  be  taken  from  a  shoot  of  the  present  or  the 
preceding  year's  growth,  and  inserted  in  a  stock  not  over 
two  years  old.  Buds  are  seldom  inserted  in  stocks  over 
one  year  old.  If  buds  are  set  in  the  latter  part  of  summer, 
a  stock  of  the  present  season's  growth  is  chosen.  4.  It  is 
important  to  take  such  buds  as  have  come  to  full  maturity, 
as  a  half -mature  bud  will  often  fail  to  produce  a  shoot, 
even  were  it  to  live.  We  have  sometimes  inserted  imma- 
ture buds,  which  have  adhered  to  the  stock,  but  which 
pushed  out  no  stem  for  two  years  after.  5.  The  inner 
surface  of  the  bud  must  be  fitted  so  neatly  to  the  corre- 
sponding surface  of  the  stock,  that  a  union  can  not  fail, 
provided  the  operation  is  performed  at  a  proper  period  in 
the  growing  season.  6.  Mechanical  skill  and  dispatch  are 
essential  to  satisfactory  success.  The  incision  should  be 
made  neatly;  the  bark  lifted  a  trifle,  without  disturbing 
the  cambium  beneath  it ;  and  the  bud  should  be  cut  from 
the  twig,  inserted,  and  the  ligature  applied  in  a  few  sec- 
onds. 

The  best  Time  to  Inoculate. — The  best  period  of  the  year 
to  bud  must  always  be  determined  by  the  growing  stocks. 


40  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

When  the  cambium  is  in  a  semi-fluid  state — whether  in 
spring,  summer,  or  autumn — insert  the  buds.  In  this  lati- 
tude, most  buds  are  inserted  during  some  one  of  the  sum- 
mer months,  or  in  September.  In  stocks  that  continue  to 
grow  late  in  the  season,  buds  are  frequently  inserted  in 
September,  and  some  in  October,  but  August  is  prefera- 
ble. 

Cause  of  Failure. — Beginners  are  sometimes  surprised  to 
find,  after  budding  a  lot  of  thrifty  young  stocks,  that  almost 
every  bud  has  failed ;  and  they  are  quite  at  a  loss  to  account 
for  the  failure.  But  experience  shows  that  the  failure  is 
caused  by  the  over-luxuriance  of  the  stock,  and  the  thin, 
watery  condition  of  the  sap.  If  the  operation  had  been  de- 
ferred until  the  sap  had  thickened,  the  result  would  have 
been  reversed ;  and  instead  of  only  one  in  a  hundred  suc- 
ceeding, there  would  have  been  only  one  per  cent,  of  fail- 
ures. The  cherry  is  more  liable  than  any  other  sort  of 
fruit  to  "  drown  out "  the  bud,  as  it  is  called.  Hence  the 
best  time  to  bud  cherry-stocks  is  just  as  soon  as  they  be- 
gin to  slacken  their  growth  and  show  a  yellow  leaf  here 
and  there.  If  this  time  is  chosen,  and  the  work  done  skill- 
fully, there  need  be  little  fear  of  failure.  Trees  which  are 
not  growing  vigorously  should  be  budded  early.  As  soon 
as  wood  sufiiciently  ripe  to  furnish  buds  can  be  found,  if 
the  bark  on  the  stocks  will  peel,  it  will  not  be  too  early. 
When  a  large  quantity  are  to  be  budded,  the  work  should 
be  taken  in  hand  early,  so  as  to  get  through  in  season,  com- 
mencing with  the  least  thrifty. 

The  object  of  budding  is  the  same  as  of  grafting,  viz.,  to 
propagate  a  desirable  sort  of  tree  or  plant.  The  only  dif- 
ference between  a  bud  and  a  cion  is  that  the  latter  is  a  de- 
velopment of  the  former.  Fruit  can  generally  be  obtained 
by  grafting  from  one  to  two  years  sooner  than  by  budding. 
But  when  a  variety  is  very  rare,  we  can,  by  budding,  get 


PR  OPA  QA  TING  APPLE-  TREES. 


41 


new  limbs  from  single  eyes ;  whereas,  in  grafting,  we  have 
to  use  three  or  four  eyes.  Some  trees,  moreover,  propa- 
gate more  readily  by  budding  than  by  grafting.  The  stone- 
fruits  exude  so  much  gum,  when  grafted,  that  it  is  hard  to 
succeed  in  the  work.  Then,  too,  in  all  kinds  of  fruit  where 
grafting  has  failed,  or  been  forgotten  in  spring,  budding 
may  be  resorted  to  in  summer.  Then,  if  budding  fail  in 
summer,  the  same  stocks  may  be  grafted  the  succeeding 
spring. 

As  has  been  stated,  the  shoot  from  which  the  buds  are 
taken  must  be  of  the  current  year's  growth,  and  must  be 
mature.  This  maturity  will  be  shown  by  the  forming  of 
buds  at  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  and  of  the  terminal  buds. 
The  best  buds  for  working  will  be  found  along  the  middle 
of  the  shoot.  If  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  have  the  buds 
ready  to  meet  the  growth  of  the  stock,  that  the  scion  or 
branch  from  which  buds  are  to  be  taken  should  be  made 
to  hasten  its  maturing  of  the  buds,  pinch  off  the  ends  of 
the  shoot  one  or  two  weeks  before  the  buds  are  to  be  set. 
In  from  eight  to  twelve  days  the  remaining  buds  will  have 
ripened  and  fitted  themselves  for  forming  new  branches. 


If  this  pinching  is 
the  branch  left  on 
buds,  after  ripen- 
ing, send  out  new 
branches,  and  make 
a  sort  of  second 
growth.  The  ac- 
companying illus- 
tration (Figure  25) 
represents  the  cor- 
rect way  of  holding 
cutting  off  a  bud. 
when    cutting    the 


done  early  in  the  season,  and 
the    tree,  the    result   is,  the 


Manner  of  holding  the  knife  to  cut 
off  a  bud. 

the  cion  and  the  knife,  when 
If  the  cion  is  small,  place  it, 
bud,  on  a  stiff  stick,  as  shown 


42 


THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 


Fig.  26. 


Fig.  27. 


Fig.  28. 


in  the  diagram.  Then  a  bud  can  be  cut  off  with  far  greater 
precision  than  if  no  stick  were  employed.  Never  attempt 
to  cut  off  a  bud  with  a  dull  knife.  Let  the  blade  be  ground 
to  an  edge ;  then  whet  it  on  a  fine-gritted  oil- 
stone, so  that  the  cut  can  be  made  true  and 
smooth.  If  a  bud  be  haggled  •off  with  a  dull 
knife,  and  the  surface  is  not  straight  and  even, 
the  union  will  be  quite  uncertain.  When  cut- 
ting off  a  bud,  employ  a  drawing  cut  of  the  knife. 
Cions  for  Budding. — Always  select  the  terminal 
shoots  for  budding.  Then,  as  soon  as  the  shoot 
is  cut  from  the  tree,  let  every  leaf  be  cut  off,  as 
represented  by  the  figure,  as  the  leaves  rapidly 
exhaust  the  liquid 
in  the  bud  when  its 
connection  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  root, 
and  thus  impair  vi- 
tality. The  buds  of 
the  upright  shoots 
of  a  tree  are  said  to 
make  more  vigorous 
growth  than  buds 
DuaaiDg.  from  lateral  shoots; 
and  buds  from  bearing  trees 
are  said  to  form  fruit  sooner 
than  buds  from  young  trees. 

A  good  Budding-knife  is  all- 
important,  as  one  can  not  use  a 
large  pruning-knife  for  remov- 
ing the  buds  advantageously. 
A  knife  with  a  thin  blade,  round- 
ed at  the  point,  will  be  found 
most  convenient.    The  most  important  consideration  is,  to 


A  pair  of  budding-kuives. 


PROPAGATING  APPLE-TREES.  43 

have  a  thin  and  narrow  blade  with  a  keen  edge.  A  rough- 
edged  razor  is  no  more  certain  to  make  a  painful  shave 
than  a  rough-edged  budding-knife  is  to  make  an  unsuccess- 
ful bud.  It  requires  a  good  knife,  a  steady  hand,  and  con- 
siderable practice  to  cut  off  buds  handsomely,  well,  and 
quick.  As  to  taking  out  the  particle  of  wood  attached  to 
the  bud,  it  matters  little,  if  the  cut  be  good  and  not  too 
deep.  In  taking  out  the  wood,  great  care  is  necessary  to 
avoid  taking  the  root  of  the  bud  with  it.  Then,  when  the 
bud  is  in  its  place,  it  must  be  well  tied  up.  Nice,  smooth, 
soft  strips  of  corn-husks  applied  wet,  like  narrow  ribbons, 
are  the  best  and  most  convenient  in  common  use.  Every 
part  of  the  cut  must  be  wrapped  so  firm  as  to  exclude  air 
completely ;  and  this  should  be  done  as  quickly  as  possible, 
as  the  air  soon  blackens  the  inner  surface  of  the  bark,  and 
prevents  the  perfect  union  of  the  new  parts  that  are  placed 
in  contact. 

Different  Styles  of  Budding. — There  are  in  vogue  three 
styles  of  budding,  all  of  which  are  substantially  the  same. 
The  difference  will  be  perceived  by  the  following  illustra- 
tions (Fig.  29,  p.  44),  each  of  which  will  give  the  beginner 
so  much  of  an  insight  into  the  process  of  inoculation,  that 
even  young  boys  and  girls  may  bud  rose-bushes  or  young 
fruit-trees  with  satisfactory  success.  The  ordinary  process 
of  budding,  denominated  Shield-htidding  or  T-budding,  is 
represented  by  the  accompanying  designs,  of  which  a  is  the 
representation  of  the  stock,  and  h  is  the  bud.  The  follow- 
ing will  furnish  a  correct  idea  of  the  manual  operation: 
After  selecting  a  smooth  place  on  the  stock,  a,  make  a  cut 
with  a  sharp,  round-pointed  knife,  in  the  form  of  the  letter 
T,  about  one  inch  long.  Be  careful,  when  cutting,  to  press 
the  edge  of  the  blade  only  through  the  bark  into  the  semi- 
fluid cambium,  and  not  into  the  wood  of  the  stock.  Now 
lift  the  corners  of  the  bark  with  the  knife  ;  then  cut  a  bud, 


44 


THE  APPLE  CULTUMIST. 


Fig.  29. 


Shield-budding. 


Fig.  30. 


b,  from  the  twig 
(Figure  25),  as 
shown  by  the  line 
around  one  bud, 
and  thrust  it  care- 
fully down  into 
the  sheath,  c.  If 
the  piece  to  which 
the  bud  is  attach- 
ed be  too  long, 
cut  off  the  upper 
end,  so  that  the 
ends  will  fit  close- 
ly to  the  bark  of 
the  stock,  c.  Now  pass  a  ligament  around  the  stock,  both 
above  and  below  the  bud,  as  at  t?,  and 
tie  the  end  securely.  The  small  piece 
of  wood  that  is  cut  off  the  twig  may 
be  removed  if  it  will  separate  easily. 
But  it  will  be  quite  as  well  to  allow 
it  to  remain. 

The  terminal  bud  of  a  twig  is  some- 
times inserted,  instead  of  a  side-bud. 
The  terminal  bud  may  be  employed,  if 
a  neat  fit  is  made  between  stock  and 
bud,  more  success- 
fully than  if  a  side- 
bud  were  used. 

Fig.    31    repre- 
sents   the   manner     stock,  a,  and  bud,  &,  shown 
of  performing  an-  eeparaey. 

7iular  budding,  or  ring-budding,  which 
is  done  by  taking  a  piece  of  bark,  say 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  long,  on  which 


Fig.  31. 


Annular  budding. 


PROPAGATING  APPLE-TREES.  45 

there  is  a  good  bud,  from  a  twig  a  little  smaller  than  the 
stock.  Then  remove  a  piece  of  the  same  length  from  the 
stock,  and  wrap  the  piece  that  bears  a  bud  around  the 
stock,  and  secure  it  with  a  soft  and  elastic  ligament.  Young 
stocks  of  nut-bearing  trees,  that  have  thick  bark,  are  fre- 
quently budded  in  this  way  with  more  satisfactory  success 
than  by  the  T-style  of  budding.  Cotton  and  linen  ligaments 
are  objectionable  for  closing  the  lips  of  the  bark,  as  there  is 
but  little  elasticity  in  such  materials.  The  ligaments  should 
be  somewhat  elastic,  so  that  the  strands  may  yield  a  trifle, 
as  the  stock  enlarges  by  growth. 

Management  of  Buds. — After  the  buds  have  been  set 
about  six  days,  each  one  should  be  examined  by  some  com- 
petent and  careful  person  who  will  exercise  proper  judg- 
ment in  removing  the  ligaments  from  the  buds  that  have 
adhered  firmly,  and  in  loosening  the  ligaments  around  oth- 
ers, when  the  strands  are  so  tight  as  to  form  creases  in  the 
bark.  When  the  lips  of  the  T-cut  have  not  united  with  the 
cambium,  so  as  to  hold  the  bud,  the  ligament  should  remain 
on  longer.  As  soon  as  the  bud  has  united  firmly  with  the 
stock,  the  ligament  should  be  removed.  Buds  that  are  set 
in  the  latter  part  of  summer  are  not  expected  to  send  up  a 
stem  until  the  next  spring.  Then,  early  in  the  growing  sea- 
son, the  stock  should  be  cut  off  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
above  the  bud,  not  square  across,  but  a  little  slanting,  so 
that  the  wound  will  heal  soon.  Grafting-wax  should  be  ap- 
plied to  the  wound  as  soon  as  the  cut  is  made,  that  the 
wood  may  not  dry  up,  to  the  injury  of  the  bud.  If  shoots 
from  buds  push  upward  too  rapidly  for  their  strength,  a 
small  stake  should  be  set  near  the  stock,  to  which  the  tender 
stem  should  be  tied  with  soft  shreds  of  old  cloth,  to  prevent 
the  wind  from  breaking  the  young  shoots  off ;  or  the  shoot 
may  be  secured  like  Fig.  32,  represented  on  page  46.  In 
many  instances,  the  stock  is  cut  off  so  near  the  bud  that,  if 


46  TKE  APPLE  GULTUBIST. 

Fig.  32.  •  grafting-wax  is  not  applied,  the  wood  of  the 
stock  dries  up  so  rapidly  that  the  young  shoot 
withers  and  dies. 

Budding  vs.  Grafting. — Budding  has  some  ad- 
vantages over  grafting. — 1.  Budding  requires 
less  skill  than  grafting.  Consequently,  a  young 
beginner  may  insert  three  or  four  buds  in  one 
small  stock,  with  the  assurance  that  one  or 
more  will  live.  Whereas  only  one  cion  can  be 
set  in  a  small  stock.  2.  In  case  four  buds  were 
a  to  fail,  the  operation  may  be  repeated  every  ten 
»  days  without  checking  the  growth  of  the  stock, 
which  is  impracticable  when  cions  are  set  in 

by  grafting.     3.  Varieties  of  fruit  can  be  bud- 
Manner  of  tying   ,    ,  X    •  -I  •    r  1  •  -1  -I 
the  shoot,  a,  to  dcd  With  satisfactory  success  which  can  not  be 

the  stock,  6.  t       i  •      i     •       -• 

propagated  by  grafting.  In  this  latitude  po- 
mologists  rarely  attempt  to  graft  the  peach.  But  we  have 
seen  it  stated  that  in  the  latitude  of  Georgia  there  is  no 
difficulty  in  grafting  the  peach  successfully.  Many  other 
trees  and  bushes  may  be  budded  which  can  not  be  graft- 
ed with  success.  But  old  stocks  can  be  grafted  in  which 
buds  would  never  live  if  they  were  inserted.  In  such  in- 
stances, the  process  of  grafting  is  superior  to  budding.  A 
young  tree  may  be  sawed  off  at  the  collar  of  the  stem  and 
cions  inserted,  which  will  often  grow  two  to  four  feet  high 
before  winter.  In  case  the  graft  should  fail,  sprouts  would 
probably  start,  which  could  be  budded  in  August.  Hence 
the  eminent  advantage  of  understanding  both  operations, 
and  knowing  how  to  employ  either  process  advantageously 
when  the  other  fails.  If  branches  of  a  large  tree  were  graft- 
ed, and  the  cions  should  not  live,  the  young  sprouts,  which 
will  usually  start  at  the  end  of  the  stub,  may  be  budded  in 
August.  Many  beginners  who  did  not  understand  how  to 
take  advantage  of  a  failure  have,  in  consequence,  lost  sev- 


PROPAGATING  APPLE-TREES.  47 

eral  years'  growth  and  value  of  their  trees.  Our  own  prac- 
tice always  has  been  to  bud  young  stocks  in  August  or  Sep- 
tember. Then,  if  the  buds  failed,  the  stocks  were  grafted 
the  next  spring  close  to  the  ground. 

Management  of  Apple-trees  in  Nurseries. — The  following 
constitutes  the  practice  of  many  nurserymen :  They  collect 
apple-roots  about  as  large  as  goose-quills,  keep  them  in 
sand  in  a  cellar,  cut  them  in  pieces  about  four  inches  long, 
graft  each  piece,  during  the  winter,  within  doors,  pack  the 
grafted  stocks  in  bundles,  and  plant  them  out  in  rows  in 
the  spring  where  a  nursery  is  to  be  formed.  Some  plant 
them  thus :  Thrust  a  spade  into  the  soil,  so  as  to  have  the 
spade  extend  equally  on  both  sides  of  the  mark  for  the 
row ;  now  push  the  spade  from  you,  and  then  withdraw  it. 
This  operation  will  leave  a  wedge-shaped  hole  ten  inches 
deep,  seven  long,  and  about  two  broad.  It  is  necessary  to 
have  another  man  to  put  in  the  grafts;  he  should  put  in 
two,  each  two  inches  outside  of  the  mark  left  as  a  guide, 
holding  them  till  the  first  or  spade-man  repeats  the  opera- 
tion with  the  spade,  which  will  be  three  to  four  inches 
from  the  edge  of  the  first  hole.  In  making  the  second,  the 
soil  is  pressed  against  the  grafts  in  the  first ;  and  thus  the 
operation  not  only  makes  the  new  hole,  but  closes  the  last ; 
and  while  the  spade  is  being  withdrawn,  the  second  man 
gets  the  grafts  for  the  new  hole.  There  is  no  time  lost 
from  one  operator  waiting  for  the  other.  Set  only  half  an 
inch  above  ground.  The  young  trees  are  then  cultivated 
in  the  same  manner  as  a  crop  of  carrots.  All  weeds  are 
kept  down,  and  the  ground  is  kept  mellow  and  loose.  Af- 
ter they  have  grown  an  inch  or  two  they  are  sprouted, 
which  consists  in  taking  all  the  sprouts  off  but  one,  the 
best.  In  the  fall  they  should  all  be  taken  up  and  stored  in 
the  root-cellar ;  and  during  the  winter,  trim  the  roots  and 
top,  and  cut  the  top  to  within  an  inch  of  where  it  started ; 


48  THE  APPLE  GULTUBIST. 

the  roots  should  be  trimmed  small  enough  to  enable  you  to 
plant  them  in  the  nursery-row  with  the  spade.  The  sec- 
ond year  plant  these  yearlings  in  the  nursery,  the  same  as 
the  year  before.  Rows  four  feet,  plants  one  foot  apart  in 
the  row,  leaving  an  inch  above  ground.  Sprout  as  before. 
In  the  fall  and  during  the  winter,  trim  them  to  whips,  leav- 
ing only  one  straight  shoot.  The  third  year  let  them  grow 
as  they  may.  In  the  fall  and  winter,  trim  them  to  whips 
and  top  them  at  four  feet.  The  fourth  year,  during  sum- 
mer, trim  off  any  limbs  that  are  too  low  on  the  trunk  to  be- 
long to  the  head.  In  the  autumn  the  trees  will  be  ready  to 
transplant.  Some  nurserymen  transplant  their  young  trees 
but  once.  Such  a  practice  will  produce  young  trees  of  fine 
appearance;  but  we  do  not  recommend  this  mode  of  pro- 
ducing an  orchard.  If  we  were  to  plant  a  hundred  orchards, 
the  trees  should  never  be  produced  in  such  a  manner.  Let 
the  seed  be  planted  where  the  trees  are  to  grow.  We  are 
well  aware  that  nurserymen  will  hoot  at  this,  because  it  en- 
dangers their  business  of  selling  trees.  But  such  trees  can 
rarely  be  relied  upon,  any  more  than  a  herdsman  can  de- 
pend on  the  veriest  scrubs  of  neat  cattle  for  superior  ani- 
mals, simply  because  they  have  not  been  bred  according  to 
the  requirements  of  vegetable  physiology.  This  is  the 
most  economical  way  to  produce  apple-trees  to  sell  to  peo- 
ple who  do  not  understand  the  difference  between  a  valua- 
ble, hardy,  and  prolific  tree,  and  one  that  is  worthless.  Not 
one-fourth  part  of  the  seeds  from  which  the  thousands  of 
fruit-trees  in  nurseries  have  sprung  were  any  more  fit  for 
producing  valuable  trees  than  the  half-ripe  and  shrunken 
kernels  of  wheat  and  other  grain  are  suitable  for  choice 
seed. 

The  True  Way  to  produce  Fruit-trees. — A  beginner  may 
listen  to  the  talk  of  those  who  have  fruit-trees  to  sell ;  and 
yet,  if  he  desires  to  obtain  trees  that  will  supply  him  with 


PROPAOATINQ  APPLE-TREES.  49 

fruit,  and  be  a  choice  heritage  to  his  successors,  let  him  be- 
gin right  by  selecting  the  seed  from  apples  or  pears  with 
his  own  hands;  plant  them  where  the  trees  are  to  grow; 
bud  the  young  trees;  and  train  and  cultivate  them  for  a 
few  years,  until  they  have  obtained  sufficient  size  to  require 
but  little  more  care. 

Now,  then,  what  does  a  beginner  desire  to  accomplish  ? 
What  end  has  he  in  view,  near  or  remote,  in  the  future  ? 
"Why,  simply,  the  object  to  be  attained  is,  hardy ,  thrifty^ 
productive  trees,  which  will  not  fail  to  yield  fair  crops  of 
excellent  fruit  every  season.  There  is  but  little  difficulty 
in  accompHshing  all  that  may  be  desired,  if  one  can  find  a 
hardy  fruit-bearing  tree  in  his  vicinity.  It  is  assumed  that 
the  stock  of  a  fruit-tree  will  exert  a  marked  influence  on 
the  production  of  the  fruit  with  which  it  may  be  grafted. 
The  Rhode  Island  Greening  is  a  fair  bearer  in  all  sections 
of  the  country,  where  the  tree  has  not  been  starved.  The 
English  Streaks  and  the  Romanites  are  also  hardy,  and 
naturally  prolific.  Select  a  few  of  the  fairest  apples  of 
these  varieties,  or  the  seed  of  any  other  hardy  variety,  and 
plant  only  the  largest  and  most  perfect  seeds  from  the 
fruit.  In  some  of  the  specimens  there  may  not  be  a  single 
seed  fit  to  plant.  In  others,  one  seed  only  can  be  found. 
The  same  principle  will  hold  good  with  pears  or  any  other 
fruit.  None  but  the  best  seeds  must  be  selected.  The  fruit 
of  any  pear-tree  that  is  hardy,  and  has  produced  a  crop  ev- 
ery season  for  several  successive  years,  may  be  selected, 
from  which  to  obtain  a  supply  of  seed  for  raising  young 
pear-trees.  As  soon  as  they  are  removed  from  the  fruit, 
before  the  kernels  have  been  allowed  to  dry,  mingle  them 
with  sand  a  little  moist,  and  keep  them  in  a  cool  cellar  un- 
til cold  weather.  Then  plunge  the  box  in  the  ground,  so 
that  the  seeds  will  freeze.  Early  in  the  growing  season, 
stake  out  the  ground,  which  is  supposed  to  be  as  mellow 

3 


50  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST, 

as  a  carrot-bed,  run  a  crowbar  down  four  feet  into  the 
earth  where  each  tree  is  to  stand,  make  a  large  hole,  fill  it 
with  rich  soil,  and  plant  two  or  three  seeds  about  one  inch 
deep.  Stick  the  seeds  point  downward,  so  that  they  will 
come  up  without  difficulty.  Cover  them  with  fine  loam. 
The  seeds  should  not  be  planted  more  than  one  inch  apart. 
If  they  all  grow,  the  best  stem  only  should  be  allowed  to 
stand.  A  strong  stake  should  be  driven  into  the  ground 
before  the  seeds  are  planted ;  and  the  seeds  should  be  stuck 
in  about  six  inches  from  the  stake,  on  the  south  side.  The 
object  of  the  stakes  is  to  protect  the  young  trees.  If  the 
soil  is  sufficiently  fertile  to  yield  fair  crops  of  grain  or  po- 
tatoes, the  tap-root  of  every  young  tree  will  strike  four  feet 
into  the  earth  the  first  season;  and  the  tops  "will  grow 
like  sparagrass  and  spread  like  applesas." 

As  soon  as  the  young  trees  are  large  enough,  they  should 
be  inoculated  with  buds  taken  from  the  topmost  branches 
of  trees  that  always  bear  a  bountiful  crop.  If  the  land  be 
kept  clean,  and  if  the  surface  or  coronal  roots  are  not  mu- 
tilated and  torn  from  the  stump,  every  tree,  at  the  end  of 
ten  years,  will  have  attained  a  height  of  over  twenty  feet, 
and  will  be  loaded  with  fruit ;  while  many  ordinary  nursery- 
trees,  planted  in  the  usual  manner,  will  never  yield  a  fair 
crop.  If  an  orchard  is  produced  in  this  manner  and  re- 
ceives proper  care,  the  trees  will  yield  bountiful  crops  for  a 
hundred  years.     (See  illustrations,  p.  22.) 

Why  every  Fanner  should  produce  his  own  Trees.— When 
a  person  purchases  an  apple-tree,  he  has  no  assurance  that, 
if  it  ever  produces  fruit,  the  product  will  be  the  variety 
that  he  bargained  for.  Neither  has  he  any  assurance  that, 
if  the  tree  bears,  it  will  yield  even  one-fourth  part  of  a  crop. 
Stocks  of  young  trees  are  often  produced  from  the  poorest 
seeds  of  a  very  poor  growing  tree,  a  shy  bearer,  and  a  worth- 
less variety.     Then,  if  the  cions  of  a  shy  bearer  and  a  ten- 


PBOPAOATING  APPLE-TREES,  51 

der  variety  be  worked  on  inferior  stocks — as  they  often  are 
in  large  nurseries — what  can  be  expected  from  the  tree? 
There  are  untold  numbers  of  apple  trees  of  this  character 
all  over  our  country ;  and  they  can  never  be  made  to  yield 
abundant  crops,  even  if  the  tops  are  regrafted  and  the  soil 
renovated.  It  is  well  known  that  many  tree-peddlers  are 
not  over-scrupulous  in  their  business.  They  will  sell  a  per- 
son any  variety  of  fruit-trees  he  may  desire  to  purchase, 
whether  they -have  such  trees  in  their  possession  or  not. 
This  is  frequently  done.  Tree-peddlers  have  told  us  that 
they  have  often  sold  any  variety  of  apple-trees  that  they 
had  in  their  possession,  for  other  varieties  that  were  called 
for.  They  received  their  price  for  the  spurious  trees,  which 
was  all  they  cared  for. 

It  will  usually  require  six  to  ten  years  to  determine  an 
error,  or  trick,  or  fraud,  in  the  purchase  of  fruit-trees.  And 
even  then,  no  person  who  hates  strife  and  the  uncertainties 
of  legal  contests  would  undertake  to  ferret  out  a  swindler 
in  the  purchase  of  fruit-trees  ;  but  there  may  be  the  trees, 
after  ten  or  twenty  years,  comparatively  worthless — cum- 
berers  of  the  land.  There  are  but  few  orchards  in  the 
country  in  which  more  or  less  worthless  trees  can  not  be 
found. 

Again,  even  when  excellent  apple-trees  are  ordered  of  a 
reliable  nurseryman,  it  often  happens  that  all  the  small 
roots  are  thoroughly  dried  up  and  killed  before  the  trees 
are  transplanted  where  they  are  to  grow.  Tree-diggers 
are  frequently  ordered  to  take  up  several  thousand  trees 
with  a  horse-digger,  leaving  hundreds  of  them  lying  in  a 
hot  sun,  and  exposed  to  drying  winds  for  half  a  day,  or 
even  longer.  Then,  before  the  roots  are  wrapped  in  moss, 
there  is  not  a  vestige  of  vitality  in  many  of  them.  In  many 
instances,  a  car-load  of  fruit-trees  is  shipped  several  hun- 
dred miles,  when  they  are  tumbled  into  a  hay-rigging  and 


52  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

carted  about  town  all  day,  exposed  to  drying  winds  and 
sunshine,  and  frequently  to  cold  and  frosty  nights,  which 
will  destroy  the  vitality  of  every  root.  We  have  often 
travelled  on  steamboats  and  cars,  where  we  have  seen  fruit- 
trees  without  any  protection,  piled  in  the  open  air,  where 
the  roots  have  dried  to  death  in  a  few  hours. 

A  farmer  purchases,  for  example,  a  supply  of  apple-trees 
to  be  sent  one  or  two  hundred  miles.  As  orders  at  the 
nursery  may  be  large,  the  operation  of  digging  must  com- 
mence early  in  the  season.  The  trees  are  dug  up  before 
the  frost  is  really  out  of  the  ground ;  and  before  they  can 
reach  their  destination,  they  are  often  frozen  and  dried,  al- 
ternately, for  two  weeks.  The  great  wonder  is,  that  those 
who  attempt  to  produce  orchards  with  purchased  trees  suc- 
ceed half  as  well  as  they  do.  But  immense  numbers  of 
failures  in  all  parts  of  the  country  show  conclusively  that 
there  are  grave  faults  somewhere. 

Another  objection  to  nursery  trees  is  the  fact  that,  in 
many  nurseries,  the  young  trees  have  been  forced  into  an 
unusually  large  and  tender  growth  by  frequent  applications 
of  stimulating  manures.  The  nurseryman  produces  trees 
to  sell.  He  has  no  further  concern  than  to  prepare  for  the 
market  such  trees  as  will  supply  an  active  demand  at  an 
exorbitant  price.  Hence  he  piles  on  the  manure,  and  pro- 
duces in  the  shortest  possible  period  the  largest  possible 
growth.  He  will  not  be  responsible  for  the  results  after 
the  trees  have  been  transplanted  into  an  orchard.  Beauti- 
ful young  trees  removed  from  a  nursery,  where  the  soil  is 
as  rich  as  a  fertile  carrot-bed,  to  land  of  ordinary  fertility,  or 
to  a  poor  soil,  will  usually  receive  a  "  set-back,"  or  "  stunt," 
from  which  they  seldom  recover. 

The  foregoing  suggestions  will  furnish  sufficient  reasons 
for  starting  young  fruit-trees  of  any  variety  of  fruit  on 
such  ground  as  may  be  chosen  for  the  orchard,  that  they 


PMOPAGATING  APPLE-TREES.  53 

may  not  be  checked  in  their  future  development.  Hence 
one  will  always  be  more  certain  of  having  hardy  and  thrifty 
trees  when  they  are  obtained  from  a  nursery  where  the 
land  is  in  rather  a  poor  state  of  fertiUty  than  from  a  nurs- 
ery where  the  soil  is  rich.  But,  after  all,  the  correct  way 
is  to  plant  the  seeds  where  the  trees  are  to  grow.  By 
adopting  the  plan  herewith  recommended,  a  person  can 
produce  a  fruitful  orchard  much  sooner  than  by  purchasing 
his  trees. 

Practical  Operations. — In  1843  we  received  the  catalogue 
of  a  nurseryman  who  was  recommended  to  be  "  thoroughly 
reliable  as  to  the  genuineness  of  every  tree  that  was  order- 
ed from  his  nursery."  His  apple-trees  and  pear-trees  were 
represented  in  his  catalogue  as  being  very  large  and  fine — 
"four  to  five  feet  high" — hardy  and  thrifty,  and  would 
be  shipped  for  fifty  to  seventy-five  cents  each.  As  we  de- 
sired to  start  an  orchard,  we  forwarded  the  money,  and 
gave  an  order  for  the  trees  early  in  the  spring.  After  the 
season  for  planting  trees  had  so  far  advanced  that  we  had 
thought^  it  quite  too  late  for  transplanting,  our  trees  ar- 
rived. But,  instead  of  being  thrifty  and  large,  suitable  for 
transplanting,  some  of  them,  for  which  we  sent  seventy-five 
cents  each,  were  only  one  year  old,  and  some  had  only  been 
budded  the  previous  season.  They  had  been  exposed  to 
the  air  for  so  long  a  time,  that  it  was  only  by  the  best  care 
that  life  was  preserved,  without  one  inch  of  growth,  till  the 
next  season.  Many  of  our  neighbors  were  treated  in  the 
same  manner  by  the  same  nurseryman.  And  yet  we  knew 
him  for  more  than  twenty  years,  up  to  the  day  of  his  death, 
as  "  a  reliable  nurseryman  !" 

Prepared  Bandages  for  Budding  and  Grafting.— Cut  cot- 
ton cloth,  such  as  sheeting,  into  narrow  strips,  say  half  an 
inch  wide,  and  sew  the  ends  smoothly  together  in  the  same 
manner  as  carpet-rags  are  prepared.     Then  wind  the  long 


54  THE  APPLE   CULTURIST. 

strip  on  a  small  stick  loosely,  and  in  a  diagonal  direction, 
so  that  a  portion  of  the  roll  will  not  fall  off  the  stick  with- 
out unrolling.  Prepare  one  or  more  bunches  of  an  oblong 
form,  as  large  as  a  man's  fist.  These  shreds  may  be  made 
also  of  under-garments  that  are  worn  out;  or  a  yard  or 
two  of  light  shirting  may  be  cut  into  strips  one-fourth  of 
an  inch  wide  and  sewed  together.  Now  put  one  pound  of 
beeswax,  one  pound  of  resin,  and  one  and  a  quarter  pounds 
of  tallow  into  a  deep  vessel,  and  melt  it  by  a  gentle  heat. 
Then  plunge  the  balls  of  bandages  into  the  boiling  liquid, 
holding  them  below  the  surface  until  the  liquid  has  forced 
all  the  air  from  the  interior  of  the  balls  and  saturated  the 
cloth.  This  may  be  determined  by  observing  when  bub- 
bles of  air  cease  to  rise  from  the  surface  of  the  liquid.  By 
this  means  grafting-wax  is  simply  applied  to  a  bandage  in 
a  very  economical  manner ;  and  the  bandages  are  in  a  con- 
venient form  for  use  at  any  time  and  for  all  kinds  of  graft- 
ing and  budding,  as  it  will  not  unwind  of  its  own  accord. 
In  cool  weather,  if  the  wax  with  which  the  roll  is  saturated 
should  be  too  hard,  keep  it  in  a  vessel  of  warm  water  while 
using  it,  so  that  the  wax  will  be  sufficiently  plastic  to  work. 
Such  bandages  require  no  tying,  as  the  ends  will  adhere  to 
the  stock  or  bandage.  Furthermore,  there  will  be  sufficient 
elasticity  in  such  bandages  to  allow  the  stock  to  expand  by 
its  growth,  and  no  cracks  will  be  formed  in  the  wax,  as 
there  is  when  nothing  but  the  clear  wax  is  employed.  Af- 
ter the  bandage  is  applied  to  the  stocks,  a  little  wax  may 
be  spread  over  the  end  where  the  saturated  bandage  does 
not  cover  the  wound.  The  width  of  such  bandage-material 
should  be  increased  for  large  stocks. 

Another  Way  of  making  Grafting-wax.  —  Any  smaller 
quantity  may  be  made  by  observing  the  correct  propor- 
tions. Add  tallow  to  make  it  softer,  and  resin  to  render 
the  wax  harder.    Take  six  pounds  of  resin,  two  pounds  of 


PBOPAOATING  APPLE-TBEEIS.  55 

tallow,  and  two  pounds  of  beeswax;  pulverize  the  resin 
first,  and  put  into  a  clean,  dry  iron  pot  over  a  slow  fire ; 
stir  constantly,  until  it  is  all  dissolved ;  then  add  the  tal- 
low and  wax,  and  stir  the  mixture  until  it  is  melted ;  pour 
the  mass  into  a  vessel  containing  cold,  clean  water;  com- 
mence immediately  at  the  edge  of  the  wax,  and  pull  pieces 
of  it,  as  you  would  pull  molasses-candy,  rubbing  your  hands 
first  with  tallow ;  and  continue  to  do  so,  now  and  then,  un- 
til it  is  finished ;  but  work  it  no  longer  than  is  necessary 
to  take  the  water  out.  Separate  it  in  rolls  six  inches  long, 
and  a  little  thicker  than  a  candle.  Put  these  rolls  on  a  dish 
or  pie-pan  in  the  cellar  until  wanted  for  use.  They  will 
keep  for  years.  One  day  before  using,  hang  them  in  the 
kitchen,  not  near  the  fire,  and  they  will  become  •  pliable. 
Always  have  a  piece  of  tallow  near,  to  rub  the  hands  while 
using  the  wax,  as  tallow  will  prevent  it  sticking  to  the  fin- 
gers. Less  beeswax  and  more  tallow  may  be  employed,  if 
desirable.  Grafting-wax  may  be  made  without  beeswax; 
still,  a  small  proportion  of  beeswax  will  render  the  mixture 
much  more  valuable. 

Liquid  Grafting-wax. — Figure  33  represents  a  vessel  for 
p,{    33  containing  liquid  grafting-wax,  to  be  ap- 

plied with  a  small  paint-brush.  The  large 
outside  vessel  may  be  of  cast-iron  or  tin. 
A  common  tea-kettle  will  subserve  the  same 
purpose.  A  small  tin  pail,  to  receive  the 
wax,  is  placed  in  the  opening  of  the  kettle. 
At  the  top  of  the  wax-kettle  there  is  a 
broad  flange  to  support  it.     The  wax  in 

Pot  for  grafting-wax.  ii  i        ,     .     ,  -,  -,        ,      , 

the  small  kettle  is  heated  by  the  hot  water 
in  the  large  vessel,  without  danger  of  burning  it. 


66  THE  APPLE  VULTURIST. 


CHAPTER  II. 

PREPARATION  OF  THE  SOIL  FOR  AN  ORCHARD. 

Now,  long  before  the  planting  dig  the  ground 

With  furrows  deep,  that  cast  a  rising  mound ; 

And  hoary  frosts,  after  the  painful  toil 

Of  delving  hinds,  will  rot  the  mellow  soil. — Deyden's  Virgil. 

The  manner  of  preparing  the  ground  for  an  apple-orchard 
will  depend  very  much  on  the  character  and  condition  of 
both  the  soil  and  the  subsoil.  The  whole  ground  for  an 
apple-orchard  should  be  pulverized  twenty  inches  deep,  so 
thoroughly  that  the  roots  of  the  young  trees  will  spread 
rapidly  through  the  entire  seed-bed.  A  person  who  is  about 
to  plant  an  orchard  must  exercise  his  own  judgment  in  re- 
gard to  deepening  the  soil,  as  the  ground  in  many  places  is 
so  porous  and  mellow  that  roots  of  growing  apple-trees  will 
strike  down  six  or  eight  feet.  Where  a  person  can  thrust 
a  spade  or  shovel  down,  without  difficulty,  through  the  sub- 
soil, all  the  preparation  requisite  will  be  simply  to  plough, 
manure,  and  scarify  the  surface-soil,  as  the  ground  is  usually 
prepared  for  a  crop  of  carrots  or  onions.  But  where  the 
compact  subsoil  extends  up  to  the  second  rail  of  the  fence — 
as  it  is  said  to,  along  the  slopes  of  some  of  our  Northern 
lakes  and  rivers — a  great  deal  of  work  must  be  done  before 
the  ground  will  be  in  a  suitable  condition  to  receive  the 
trees  or  the  seed.  It  will  pay  well  to  perform  this  job  in 
the  most  thorough  manner,  as  it  is  a  piece  of  work  that  is 
<Ione  for  life.  If  not  performed  thoroughly,  before  the  seed 
is  planted  or  the  trees  are  set,  it  must  go  undone.  By  a 
proper  pulverization  of  the  subsoil  twenty  inches  or  two 
feet  deep,  where  the  subsoil  is  compact,  trees  will  gi'ow 


FREPAKATION  OF  TEE  SOIL. 
Fig.  34. 


67 


DB.  grant's  "iona  great  trenoh-plough." 

The  cut  of  a  large  plough,  herewith  given,  Fig.  34,  represents  one  of  Dr.  C.  W. 
Grant's  huge  implements,  which  he  ordered  to  be  made  by  the  "  Peekskill  Plough 
Company,"  of  Peekskill,  N.  T.,  for  the  purpose  of  pulverizing  the  soil  to  a  great 
depth  on  Iona  Island,  where  his  celebrated  vineyard  is  located.  With  a  strong 
team  of  four  to  eight  good  mules,  horses,  or  heavy  oxen,  such  a  plough  will  cut 
farrows,  by  running  twice  in  a  place,  thirty  inches  deep.  The  implement  is  made 
very  strong,  and  is  well  adapted  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  intended.  Of 
course,  where  the  substratum  is  full  of  boulders  and  bars  of  hard-pan,  it  would  be 
difficult  to  draw  any  plough  as  deep  as  thirty  inches ;  yet  on  many  kinds  of  soil 
every  square  yard  may  be  thoroughly  broken  to  that  depth. 

larger  in  ten  years  than  they  would  have  grown  in  twenty 
years,  if  the  subsoil  had  not  been  broken  up  so  finely  that 
the  roots  could  spread  deep  and  wide.  Small,  narrow,  and 
deep  post-holes  in  a  compact  subsoil  will  not  answer.  We 
want  to  put  in  the  subsoiler  beam-deep,  this  way,  cross  ways, 
cornerways,  and  diagonally,  so  that  every  particle  of  the 
hard  stratum  may  be  broken  up.  It  is  always  best,  if  prac- 
ticable, to  keep  the  thin  stratum  of  soil  or  surface-mould 
on  the  top  of  the  subsoil,  especially  where  the  under-stratum 
is  compact,  heavy,  and  less  fertile  than  the  surface-soil. 
The  writer  once  prepared  heavy  land  for  an  orchard  by 
throwing  the  ground  in  high  ridges  with  a  three-horse 
plough.  As  there  was  no  sod  on  the  surface,  a  ridge  was 
formed  midway  between  the  places  for  the  rows,  and  the 
ground  was  ploughed  several  times,  until  a  broad  and  deep 
middle  furrow  was  produced  where  the  trees  were  to  grow. 

3* 


58 


THE  APPLE  GULTURIST. 


Fig.  35.  The  ground  was  then 

staked  out,  when 
holes  six  feet  in  di- 
ameter were  dug 
twenty  inches  deep- 
er in  the  hard  earth 
than  the  plough  had 
been  drawn.  Mel- 
low soil  was  then 
carted  from  anoth- 
er field,  and  shovel- 
led into  the  holes. 
About  half  a  wag- 
on-load was  deposit- 
ed in  each  hole.  As 
one  man  shovelled 
from  the  wagon,  an- 
other returned  the 
hard  earth  that  had 
been  removed  from 
the  holes.  Rich  turf 
was  also  ploughed  up  along  the  highway  and 
carted  into  the  holes.  After  they  were  filled, 
the  ridges  were  all  ploughed  down  level,  after 
which  the  trees  were  set  in  their  places.  The 
ground  alluded  to  was  so  compact  and  hard  that 
in  most  places  it  was  necessary  to  run  the  plough 
three  times  in  one  place,  with  a  man  on  the  beam,  before 
we  could  work  the  implement  down  a  foot  below  the  sur- 
face-soil. Then,  when  we  came  to  deepen  the  places  where 
the  trees  were  to  be  set,  every  inch  of  the  earth  had  to  be 
dug  up  with  the  sharp  point  of  a  digger's  pick.  Two  men, 
by  laboring  faithfully,  after  the  ground  had  been  thoroughly 
subsoiled,  were  able  to  prepare  the  places  and  set  out  only 


PREPARATION  OP  THE  SOIL.  59 

ten  to  twelve  trees  in  a  day.  But  the  rapid  growth  of  the 
trees  and  fine  crops  of  fruit  assured  us  that  such  labor  had 
not  been  misdirected.  The  truth  is,  roots  of  fruit-trees 
can  not  spread  downward  in  such  compact  ground,  except 
at  a  very  slow  and  unsatisfactory  growth,  from  year  to 
year. 

How  to  Plough  Deep. 

The  plough  with  ill  holding  turns  quickly  aside.— Tom  Tussee. 

When  preparing  the  ground  for  an  apple-orchard,  where 
the  substratum  consisted  of  a  compact  calcareous,  gravelly 
clay,  the  ploughing  was  done  with  a  heavy  yoke  of  oxen, 
and  a  span  of  horses  forward  of  them,  attached  to  a  deep- 
tiller-plough,  with  which,  by  going  twice  in  the  same  place, 
with  a  man  on  the  beam,  we  could  cut  a  narrow  furrow 
eighteen  inches  deep.  A  very  short  yoke  was  used  on  the 
oxen,  so  that  the  plough  could  be  adjusted  to  cut  only  five 
or  six  inches  in  width.  The  ground  was  such  that  the 
plough  would  frequently  encounter  boulders  as  large  as  a 
man's  head,  and  sometimes  much  larger.  Many  such  stones 
would  throw  the  plough  out.  But  if  the  team  could  not 
draw  them  out  with  the  plough,  every  one  was  dug  out  with 
a  pick  and  crowbar.  This  was  a  slow  way  of  preparing 
ground.  But  the  process  was  thorough.  As  the  work  was 
performed  in  late  autumn,  when  there  was  Uttle  else  to  be 
done  with  a  team,  we  had  ample  time  to  put  the  plough 
down  to  a  uniform  depth  over  the  entire  field.  Such  prep- 
aration of  the  ground  paid  satisfactorily  in  the  luxuriant 
and  healthful  growth  of  the  trees. 

The  illustration  given  on  page  60  (Fig.  36)  represents  a 
common  plough,  with  an  adjustable  subsoil  attachment  for 
preparing  ground  for  fruit-trees.  One  of  the  advantages  of 
such  a  plough  is,  the  best  soil  can  be  kept  on  the  surface — 
where  it  always  should  be — and  one  man  can  hold  an  im- 


60 


THE  APPLE  CULTVRIST. 


plement  that  does  the  work  of  two  ploughs 
when  held  by  two  different  men.  In  case  a 
light  mucky  soil  were  resting  on  a  heavy 
subsoil,  it  would  be  advisable  to  turn  up 
the  compact  subsoil,  and  mingle  it  with 
the  light  soil  by  cross-ploughing  several 
times  before  the  trees  or  apple-seeds  were 
planted.  A  few  days'  work  with  a  double 
team  and  an  extra  hand,  when  preparing 
the  ground  for  an  orchard,  will  be  labor 
judiciously  appropriated.  If  the  ground  is 
in  sod,  and  the  soil  is  heavy,  the  prepara- 
tion for  trees  should  commence  a  year  or 


Pig.  36, 


The  true  way  to  ride  a  plough-beam. 

more  before  the  seeds  or  trees  are  to  be  planted.  It  is  folly 
for  a  man  to  plant  trees  of  any  kind  in  grass  ground.  Grass, 
clover,  weeds,  and  grain,  if  allowed  to  grow  near  trees,  will 
retard  their  growth  far  more  than  one  would  suppose.  As 
a  rule,  this  is  true.  And  yet  we  have  seen  fruit-trees,  on 
deep  alluvial  soils,  send  out  branches  on  every  side,  one  to 
two  feet  annually,  even  when  the  surface  of  the  ground 
around  them  was  covered  with  a  tough  sod,  and  yielded  a 
heavy  burden  of  grass. 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  SOIL. 


61 


represents   a  transverse 

Pig.  37. 


Trench-ploughing. — Figure  3  7 
section  of  trench- 
ploughing,  as  the 
ground  will  appear 
after  having  been 
ploughed  by  such  an 
implement  as  is  il- 
lustrated on  page  57. 

If  the  land  is  not  so  a  section  of  treuch-ploughiug. 

stony  as  to  hinder  the  use  of  a  trench-plough,  by  adjust- 
ing it  to  cut  a  furrow-slice  about  twelve  or  fourteen  inches 
broad,  the  whole  ground  may  be  thoroughly  pulverized  to 
a  depth  of  two  feet.  In  order  to  perform  the  task  well,  the 
plough  must  cut  narrow  furrow-slices. 

Under-draining  Orchards. — Figure  38  furnishes  a  per- 
spective of  two  rows  of  apple-trees,  between  which  there  is 
a  deep  tile-drain.  When  such  drains  are  made,  the  joints 
ot  the  tiles  should  be  covered  with  collars,  and  the  hardest 


An  under-drain  between  the  rows. 

earth  should  be  placed  on  the  tiles,  rather  than  mellow  soil, 
in  order  to  prevent  roots  of  trees  from  entering  the  joints, 
and  enlarging  to  such  an  extent  as  to  obstruct  the  water- 
passage.  All  under- drains  between  rows  of  fruit-trees 
should  be  three  or  four  feet  deep. 


62  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

Drains  between  the  Rows  of  Fruit-trees. — The  ground 
for  another  orchard  was  prepared  in  the  following  manner : 
Stakes  were  set  to  indicate  the  rows  of  trees,  thirty-three 
feet  distant,  each  way.  As  the  subsoil  was  a  heavy,  reten- 
tive calcareous  clay,  it  was  deemed  necessary  to  put  a  deep 
under-drain  between  all  the  rows.  The  ground  was  plough- 
ed by  cutting  very  narrow  furrow-slices,  and  going  twice 
in  a  place,  making  a  deep  middle  furrow  midway  between 
the  rows.  Then  a  good  tile  drain  was  put  down,  in  no 
place  less  than  thirty  inches,  and  in  many  places  four  feet 
deep.  The  land  was  then  ploughed  again,  turning  back 
furrows  to  the  ditches,  and  finishing  deep  dead  furrows 
where  the  rows  of  trees  were  to  stand.  The  tiles  drew  all 
the  surplus  water,  so  that  the  heavy  and  compact  soil  was 
greatly  improved  in  its  friability.  But  there  are  hundreds 
of  orchards  that  would  never  be  benefited  by  drains  be- 
tween the  rows;  and  there  are  untold  numbers  of  fruit- 
trees  of  all  kinds  which  have  never  yielded  half  a  crop  of 
fruit,  simply  because  the  ground  has  been  kept  too  wet  and 
cold  during  two  or  more  months  in  the  former  part  of  the 
growing  season.  There  are  frequently  some  portions  of  an 
orchard  which  are  excessively  wet,  while  most/)f  the  ground 
would  never  be  benefited  by  under-draining.  When  young 
apple-trees  do  not  grow  luxuriantly  where  the  soil  is  deep 
and  fertile,  and  when  the  leaves  do  not  seem  to  be  healthy, 
it  is  a  certain  indication  of  one  of  the  following  difficulties, 
namely:  The  ground  is  too  wet  and  cold;  or  borers  are 
working  in  the  stem ;  or  the  tap  root  has  been  cut  off ;  or 
one  was  never  sent  down  into  the  subsoil  to  bring  up 
moisture  in  dry  weather,  and  such  inorganic  material  as 
the  growing  tree  requires ;  or  the  soil  round  about  the  tree 
is  not  kept  free  from  noxious  weeds,  injurious  grass,  and 
other  crops. 

If  the  rows  are  to  be  laid  out  in  the  quincunx  style,  stake 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  SOIL. 


63 


them  out  so  that  the  trees  will  stand  in  one  direction,  ex- 
actly parallel  with  the  under-drains.  By  starting  correctly, 
the  rows  may  be  made  to  run  in  any  desired  direction,  ei- 
ther down  a  slope  or  across  a  slope,  in  a  diagonal  line.  If 
tile-drains  are  made  a  rod  from  apple-trees,  there  will  be 
very  little  danger  that  roots  will  ever  fill  the  water-passage, 
provided  the  tiles  are  put  down  three  feet.  Were  the  tiles 
laid  beneath  or  near  the  rows,  roots  would  be  liable  to  ob- 
struct the  water-passage  in  a  few  seasons.  There  need  be 
no  apprehension  of  rendering  heavy  land  too  dry  by  under- 
drains  between  the  rows. 


The  fruit  of  the  Swaar  is  usually  large,  regularly  formed,  roundish,  or  roundish 
oblate ;  skin  of  a  greenish-yellow  when  first  gathered;  but  when  fully  ripe,  it  is  of 
a  fine  golden  color,  dotted  with  numerous  distinct  brown  specks,  and  sometimes 
faintly  marbled  with  gray  russet  on  the  side  and  around  the  stalk ;  flesh  yellow- 
ish, fine-grained  and  tender,  with  an  exceedingly  rich  and  aromatic  flavor,  and 
spicy  smell.  The  core  is  small,  and  the  skin  tender.  The  trees  are  very  produc- 
tive on  good  land  ;  season,  from  December  to  April. 


64  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

The  best  Soil  for  Apples. — The  most  desirable  soil  for  ap- 
ples is  one  where  there  is  a  liberal  supply  of  both  clay  and 
sand.  Indeed,  apple-trees  must  have  both  clay  and  sand, 
or  they  will  not  yield  abundant  crops  of  fruit  for  a  long 
time.  Consequently,  a  good  fertile  loam,  which  supplies 
both,  will  be  found  an  excellent  soil  for  an  apple  orchard. 
In  numerous  instances,  a  deep  alluvial  soil — if  it  happens 
to  be  of  the  right  character — will  be  found  excellent  for 
either  apples  or  pears.  The  fact  that  the  roots  of  an  ap- 
ple-tree must  be  supplied  with  clay  and  sand,  enables  the 
beginner  to  improve  his  ground  for  apples,  when  either 
clay  or  sand  is  lacking,  or  when  there  is  an  excess  of  clay, 
and  a  deficiency  of  sand,  and  vice  versa.  Where  the  soil 
is  deep  and  light,  composed  largely  of  sand  and  muck  and 
leaf-mould,  let  two  or  three  tons  of  clay  be  spread  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  in  late  autumn  or  winter,  where 
each  tree  is  to-  be  planted.  Then,  in  the  spring,  as  it  will 
be  fine,  let  it  be  mingled  with  the  light  soil.  On  the  con- 
trary, if  the  soil  is  heavy,  add  sand,  muck  and  leaf -mould ; 
and  mingle  such  additions  thoroughly  with  the  soil.  Pile 
on,  also,  gas-house  lime,  old  and  quick-lime,  leached,  un- 
leached,  and  coal  ashes,  chip-dirt,  sawdust,  fertile  street  dirt, 
scrapings  of  the  manure-yard,  tan  bark,  leather  shavings, 
refuse  of  woollen  mills,  and  all  such  manurial  material  as 
can  readily  be  obtained.  It  will  pay  to  cart  sawdust  two 
miles  to  put  around  apple-trees,  as  such  material  will  fur- 
nish much  of  the  best  quality  of  food  for  the  hungry  roots 
of  growing  trees.  Good  barn-yard  manure  is  also  excellent 
for  growing  trees ;  and  there  is  no  danger  of  applying  too 
much  of  it.  But  all  such  articles  should  be  worked  into 
the  soil,  where  the  roots  can  feed  on  such  portions  as  will 
promote  the  growth  of  the  trees  and  the  development  of 
the  fruit. 

We  have  met  with  scores  of  orchards  in  New  Jersey 


PHEPARATION  OF  THE  SOIL.  65 

where  the  soil  was  deficient  in  clay;  and  after  one  or  two 
fair  crops  had  been  gathered,  the  proprietors  invariably 
complained  that  their  trees  did  not  yield  even  medium 
crops  of  fruit.  But  they  did  not  seem  to  understand  that 
apple-trees  must  have  a  supply  of  clay,  as  well  as  sand,  in 
order  to  yield  well.  We  have  in  mind  large  numbers  of 
men  who  have  fruit-trees  on  the  light  soils  of  New  Jersey 
and  of  Long  Island,  who  have  always  complained  that  their 
fruit-trees  are  failing,  and  that  varieties  are  dying  out. 
The  fact  is,  there  was  nothing  available  in  the  soil  out  of 
which  the  roots  of  trees  could  produce  apples.  Conse- 
quently, those  very  men  would  report  that  in  their  locali- 
ties "  such  and  such  varieties  are  complete  failures ;"  when 
two  tons  of  clay,  a  few  bushels  of  lime,  a  top-dressing  of 
ashes,  and  a  dressing  of  rich  compost,  would  have  caused 
every  branch  to  hang  down  with  plump  and  luscious  fruit. 
A  gentleman  of  our  acquaintance,  at  this  suggestion,  spread 
two  wagon-loads  of  clay  round  about  a  barren  fall-pippin 
tree,  and  the  next  season  there  was  a  bountiful  crop  of 
fine  fruit.  These  suggestions  wiU  give  a  beginner  a  fair 
idea  of  the  requirements  of  growing  apple-trees,  and  of  the 
chief  operations  in  preparing  the  soil  for  a  profitable  or- 
chard. 

What  growing  Apple-trees  require. — By  referring  to  the 
analytical  constituents  of  apples,  it  will  be  perceived  that 
there  is  a  large  percentage  of  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  some 
soda,  some  lime,  and  some  phosphate  of  iron  in  the  fruit. 
If  these  ingredients  are  scarce  in  the  soil,  we  may  succeed 
in  producing  fine-looking  trees,  but  they  will  not  bear  fruit, 
except  inferior  crops  of  small,  knotty,  scabby,  and  one-sided 
specimens,  simply  because  the  roots  can  not  find  a  supply 
of  fruit-producing  material  in  all  the  space  they  occupy. 
Bones,  fish,  dead  animals,  hair,  leather  shavings,  and  genu- 
ine superphosphate,  and  good  marl,  will  supply  very  irapor- 


66  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

tant  ingredients  to  make  large  and  luscious  fruit.  x\shes 
of  all  kinds — especially  unleaclied  wood-ashes — will  supply 
potash,  which  is  of  eminent  importance  in  the  production 
of  fair  and  plump  fruit.  Hence  every  gallon  of  soap-suds 
should  be  poured  round  about  growing  trees.  During  the 
production  of  all  kinds  of  cereal  grain,  grass,  vegetables, 
and  fruit,  Nature  forms  out  of  sand  and  potash  a  kind  of 
liquid  glass,  which  is  spread  over  the  leaves,  stems,  and  fruit, 
to  fortify  the  tender  parts  from  the  injurious  effects  of  rust 
and  mildew.  Hence,  if  we  top-dress  growing  wheat  with  a 
hberal  supply  of  sand  and  wood-ashes,  the  stalks  and  leaves 
will  be  very  harsh  and  stiff,  and  of  a  bright  color,  as  Nature 
was  supplied  with  an  abundance  of  the  right  kind  of  mate- 
rial to  form  a  glassy  coat  of  mail  over  the  surface  of  every 
part  of  the  plant.  Hence  rust  could  not  penetrate  the 
glassy  covering.  Now,  then,  if  we  pile  on  the  wood-ashes 
and  sand,  or  soap-suds,  an  elastic,  glassy  covering  will  be 
spread  so  thickly  over  the  surface  of  every  apple,  that  rust 
and  cracks  on  the  fruit  will  seldom  be  met  with.  Were  a 
person  to  cast  a  barrel  or  two  of  soft  soap  into  the  street, 
almost  every  thoughtful  man  would  rebuke  him  for  such  a 
wanton  waste  of  valuable  fertilizing  material  for  fruit-trees 
or  for  grain.  And  yet,  after  a  barrel  of  soap  has  been  dis- 
solved and  diluted  in  the  wash-tub,  it  is  quite  as  valuable  for 
fertilizing  purposes  as  before  it  was  dissolved.  There  is 
very  little  danger  of  spreading  too  large  a  supply  of  wood- 
ashes  around  apple-trees.  The  roots  must  be  fed  with 
proper  materials  for  developing  the  fruit.  Three  or  four 
bushels  of  lime  spread  around  a  bearing  tree,  as  far  out  as 
the  branches  extend,  will  often  produce  a  fair  crop  of  fruit. 
The  carcass  of  a  dead  horse,  or  cow,  if  cut  up  into  small 
pieces,  and  buried  where  the  roots  of  an  apple-tree  will  feed 
on  the  flesh  and  bones,  will  often  make  an  indifferent  bearer 
yield  a  bountiful  crop.  Marl  is  also  excellent  when  used  in 
the  same  way. 


PBEPAHATION  OF  THE  SOIL.  67 

Requisite  Elements  of  Fertility. — Whatever  earthy  ingre- 
dients are  found  in  the  wood,  bark,  and  fruit  of  trees  must 
be  derived  from  the  soil ;  and  if  the  soil  in  which  they  are 
planted  does  not  contain  all  these  ingredients,  the  trees,  or 
the  fruit,  or  both,  must  necessarily  fail.  The  mechanical 
condition  of  the  soil  is  of  as  much  importance  in  fruit-cul- 
ture as  its  chemical  constitution.  In  its  preparation,  there- 
fore, the  aim  should  be  to  secure  good  depth  with  perfect 
drainage.  The  object  is  to  maintain  a  moderately  luxuriant 
growth  with  early  and  thorough  maturity  in  the  wood ;  and 
this  can  be  best  attained  in  comparatively  poor  soils  of  mod- 
erate fertility.  As  a  general  rule,  a  soil  which  is  dry,  firm, 
mellow,  and  fertile,  is  well  suited  to  the  cultivation  of  fruit- 
trees.  It  should  be  deep,  to  allow  the  extension  of  the 
roots ;  dry,  or  else  well  drained,  to  prevent  injury  from 
stagnant  water  below  the  surface ;  firm,  and  not  peaty  or 
spongy,  to  preclude  disaster  from  frost,  mildew,  and  rust. 

Most  soils  in  this  country  may  be  much  benefited  for  all 
decidedly  hardy  kinds  of  fruit,  as  the  apple  and  pear,  by 
good  manuring.  Shallow  soils  should  be  loosened  deeply - 
by  heavy  furrows  and  manure ;  or,  if  the  whole  surface  can 
not  be  thus  treated,  a  strip  of  ground  eight  feet  wide,  where 
the  row  of  trees  is  to  stand,  should  be  rendered  in  this  way 
deep  and  fertile  for  their  growth.  The  manure  should  be 
thoroughly  intermixed  with  the  soil  by  repeated  harrow- 
ings.  The  only  trees  which  will  not  bear  a  high  fertility 
are  those  brought  originally  from  warmer  countries,  and 
liable  to  suffer  from  the  frost  of  winter — as  the  peach,  nec- 
tarine, and  apricot ;  for  they  are  stimulated  to  grow  too  late 
in  the  season,  and  frost  strikes  them  when  the  wood  is  im- 
mature. It,  however,  happens,  in  the  ordinary  practice  of 
the  country,  that  where  one  peach  or  apricot  tree  is  injured 
by  too  rich  a  cultivation,  more  than  a  hundred  suffer  by 
diminished  growth  from  neglect. 


68  THE  APPLE  CULTUMIST. 

One  Error  in  manuring  the  Ground,  when  an  orchard  is 
growing,  consists  in  applying  too  much  carbonaceous  ma- 
terial, when  there  is  already  too  much,  but  a  scarcity  of 
mineral  or  inorganic  material.  Most  soils  contain  a  suf- 
ficient quantity  of  carbon,  in  the  form  of  leaf-mould  and 
muck,  for  the  requirements  of  fruit-trees,  provided  there  is 
no  lack  of  inorganic  elements  in  the  soil,  such  as  alumina, 
potash,  and  soda.  Granite  soils  are  among  the  best  for 
fruit,  as  this  rock  abounds  in  feldspar  and  mica,  both  of 
which  contain  potash.  As  these  rocks  disintegrate  and  en- 
ter into  the  composition  of  the  soil,  they  supply  one  of  the 
most  necessary  elements  for  the  formation  of  good  trees 
and  fruit.  Some  of  the  best  orchards  we  have  ever  seen 
were  on  alluvial  (loamy)  soils,  lying  upon  limestone  rocks 
which  came  up  near  the  surface.  One  of  the  best  soils  on 
which  to  raise  fruit  is  that  just  cleared  of  a  forest.  The 
surface  should  be  rolling  or  descending,  and  moderately  dry 
and  rich.  Such  ground  needs  little  or  no  preparation.  The 
roots  of  the  forest-trees,  as  they  decay,  keep  it  loose  and 
mellow,  and  afford  the  exact  food  necessary  for  a  rapid 
and  healthy  growth  of  the  fruit-trees ;  and  in  most  instan- 
ces, the  soil  abounds  plentifully  in  those  elements  which  are 
requisite  to  form  the  most  perfect  fruit.  Another  consid- 
eration, and  a  very  important  one,  is,  that  fruit-trees  grown 
on  recently-cleared  forest  land  are  much  less  liable  to  be 
diseased  than  those  grown  on  old  land. 

Any  one  going  from  an  old  settled  country  to  a  new  one 
will  not  fail  to  observe  the  remarkable  difference  between 
the  trees  and  fruit  of  the  one  and  the  other.  How  much 
more  thrifty  they  are  in  the  latter  than  in  the  former,  and 
how  much  larger,  fairer,  and  more  perfect  the  fruit  usually 
is  on  new  land  than  on  old. 

Orchards  on  Rough  Land. — There  are  thousands  of  acres 
of  rough,  broken,  rocky,  and  uneven  ground,  in  many  States, 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  SOIL.  69 

which  have  never  been  ploughed,  but  vrhich  would  be  more 
valuable  for  orchards  than  for  any  other  purpose,  were 
apple-trees  properly  started  on  them.  In  many  localities  in 
New  England,  boulders  cover  the  surface  of  the  ground  so 
completely  that  a  team  can  scarcely  be  driven  across  the 
field.  But  the  soil  is  generally  of  a  superior  quality  for 
fruit  of  almost  every  kind,  and  especially  for  apples.  Were 
the  boulders  removed,  so  that  the  ground  could  be  plough- 
ed, the  land  would  yield  abundant  crops  of  cereal  grain  of 
almost  any  kind.  But  the  boulders  will  hinder  the  growth 
of  apple-trees  but  little,  as  such  rocky  soils  are  usually  so 
porous  and  friable  that  roots  will  strike  deeply  and  at  a 
great  length  every  season. 

The  most  economical  and  expeditious  way  of  starting  an 
orchard  on  such  ground  is  to  commence,  at  one  corner  of 
the  plot,  to  stake  out  the  places  for  the  trees.  In  many  in- 
stances every  boulder  that  would  be  in  the  way  can  be  re- 
moved with  crowbars  and  cant-hooks.  Occasionally,  how- 
ever, a.  large  boulder  weighing  ten  or  more  tons  may  be 
lying  exactly  where  a  tree  should  stand.  In  some  instances 
such  large  rocks  can  be  buried  in  a  hole  dug  close  by,  of  suf- 
ficient depth  to  receive  the  entire  stone  beneath  the  surface. 
Whenever  a  rock  is  to  be  buried  in  such  a  manner,  a  strong 
brace  should  hold  it  from  tumbling  in  before  the  hole  is 
ready. 

After  the  plot  is  properly  staked  out  in  quincunx  order, 
drive  a  stake  into  the  ground,  a  few  inches  from  the  points 
where  the  trees  are  to  grow.  Then  make  deep  holes  with 
a  crowbar,  as  directed  on  another  page ;  fill  the  holes  with 
mould,  sand,  or  mellow  earth,  and  plant  the  apple- seeds  in 
late  autumn,  as  directed.  Apple-trees  will  grow  rapidly  on 
such  ground,  and  will  yield  abundant  crops  of  fruit. 


70  THE  APPLE  GULTUBIST. 


CHAPTER  III. 

LAYING  OUT  THE  GROUND  FOR  AN  ORCHARD. 

"Now  mark  out  the  quincunx  in  hexagon  lines, 
And  orderly  stake  it  for  trees  or  for  vines; 
If  circles  or  triangles  cover  the  ground, 
At  each  intersection  the  quincunx  is  found." 

Many  beginners  are  often  at  a  great  loss  how  to  com- 
mence laying  out  an  orchard  correctly,  so  that  the  trees 
will  stand  in  straight  rows,  at  a  right  angle,  or  in  the  hex- 
agonal or  quincunx  order.  One  can  guess  at  a  right  angle, 
in  some  instances,  with  satisfactory  accuracy;  but  some- 
times a  person  may  feel  confident  that  his  stakes  have  been 
stuck  at  a  right  angle,  when  he  has  found,  to  his  disappoint- 
ment, that  the  angle  was  surprisingly  obtuse,  or  acute,  as 
the  case  may  be.  If  the  rows  are  begun  crooked,  stake 
after  stake  may  be  altered  without  being  able  to  form 
straight  lines,  and  with  only  an  increase  of  the  confusion. 
If  the  first  tree,  in  a  row  of  fifty,  be  placed  only  six  inches 
out  of  the  way,  and  be  followed  as  a  guide  for  the  rest,  the 
last  one  will  deviate  fifty  times  six  inches  from  a  right  line, 
even  if  the  first  error  is.  not  repeated.  We  have  seen  large 
apple-orchards  with  rows  nearly  as  crooked  as  this.  To 
say  nothing  of  the  deformed  appearance  to  the  eye,  crooked 
rows  prove  exceedingly  inconvenient  every  time  the  ground 
is  planted  and  cultivated  with  crops  in  rows.  It  is  a  very 
easy  task  to  mark  out  the  ground  for  an  orchard  or  vine- 
yard, having  the  rows  running  at  right  angles,  or  in  the 
quincunx  order,  without  the  aid  of  a  surveyor's  compass. 
The  trees  should  stand  in  straight  rows,  first,  for  the  sake 
of  the  workmanlike  appearance ;  and,  secondly,  for  the  sake 


LAYING   OUT  THE  GROUND.  7l 

of  convenience,  when  ploughing  and  cultivating  the  ground. 
When  one  sets  out  fruit-trees  in  crooked  rows,  the  little 
crooks,  which  might  have  been  avoided  by  a  moment's  f oi-e- 
thought,  often  annoy  through  life,  like  mortifying  mistakes 
in  one's  moral  career,  which  can  never  be  corrected.  Hence 
the  eminent  importance  of  commencing  correctly  to  mark 
out  the  ground,  so  that  every  row  shall  be  as  straight  as 
can  be  desired. 

The  proper  Distance  apart. — ^Most  persons  when  about  to 
plant  apple-trees,  unless  they  have  exercised  themselves  to 
think  how  much  space  an  apple-tree,  when  full-grown,  will 
occupy,  are  liable  to  make  egregious  mistakes  by  setting 
their  trees  decidedly  too  close  in  the  rows.  We  have 
known  many  intelligent  farmers  set  their  young  apple-trees 
only  ten  feet  apart !  After  one  tree  had  been  planted,  a 
distance  of  ten  feet  was  measured  from  the  tree,  when  an-* 
other  tree  was  set  erect,  and  the  eyes  were  glanced  around 
to  measure  the  range  of  the  branches.  The  first  impres- 
sion was,  that  the  tops  would  scarcely  fill  the  apparently 
great  arda  assigned  to  each  tree.  Hence  trees  were  plant- 
ed more  than  twice  as  close  as  they  should  be.  The  first 
apple-trees  that  we  ever  transplanted  were  set  about  twen- 
ty-seven feet  apart.  As  we  stood  at  our  little  tree — as 
boys  are  accustomed  to,  when  setting  out  trees — and  look- 
ed at  those  little  whips,  and  then  cast  the  eye  about  the 
large  area  that  must  be  filled  before  the  branches  would 
touch  each  other,  we  thought,  as  a  thousand  other  farmers 
do  who  have  planted  their  trees  too  close  together,  that  we 
should  be  an  old  man — were  life  prolonged — before  the 
branches  would  meet  each  other.     But  see  how  soon 

"Tall  oaks  from  little  acorns  grow." 

Seventeen  years  after  the  little  whips  were  planted,  we 
measured  the  height  and  breadth  of  the  tops;  and  the 


72  THE  APPLE  CULTUBIST. 

height  of  one  Benoni-tree,  of  fine  proportions,  was  twenty- 
one  and  a  half  feet,  and  from  the  centre  of  the  body  to  a 
point  directly  below  the  ends  of  the  lateral  branches,  was 
fifteen  to  seventeen  feet  on  all  sides.  If  the  branches  of 
the  other  trees  had  spread  out  laterally  with  the  same  ra- 
pidity, their  extremities  would  have  interlocked  a  distance 
of  four  feet  on  all  sides.  Some  pomologists  insist  that  the 
distance  between  apple-trees  should  never  be  less  than  forty 
feet;  while  others  say  thirty  feet;  and  others  thirty-three 
feet ;  and  some,  even  forty-eight  feet  apart.  By  a  proper 
investigation  of  this  subject,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  proper 
distance  will  depend  on  the  kind  of  trees  to  be  transplant- 
ed. The  correct  idea  is  to  plant  the  trees  at  such  a  dis- 
tance apart  that,  when  they  have  attained  their  full  size, 
the  lateral  branches  will  not  interweave  each  other.  If 
trees  be  set  so  close  together  that  the  branches  of  one  tree 
will  grow  among  those  on  each  side  of  it,  the  trees  will  not 
be  as  productive  or  healthy  as  if  they  were  farther  apart. 
Fruit-trees  must  be  entirely  isolated,  in  order  to  flourish 
and  be  productive.  There  should  always  be  suflicient  space 
between  the  tree-tops  to  permit  a  person,  when  gathering 
fruit,  to  carry  a  ladder  in  an  erect  position  between  the 
trees.  If  apple-trees  stand  two  rods,  or  thirty-three  feet, 
apart,  in  every  direction,  and  if  the  trees  are  pruned  cor- 
rectly, from  the  first  and  second  years  of  their  growth,  so 
that  an  area  of  fifteen  feet  on  each  side  of  every  tree  is 
properly  filled  with  bearing  branches,  no  one  will  ever  have 
reason  to  complain  that  his  trees  were  planted  too  closely. 
It  would  be  a  very  easy  thing  to  train  some  kinds  of  apple- 
trees  to  extend  their  lateral  branches  twenty  feet  each  way, 
from  the  stem  of  the  tree.  But  there  would  be  no  gain  in 
such  wide-spreading  tree-tops.  Most  of  our  influential  and 
experienced  pomologists  agree  as  to  the  distance  of  thirty- 
three  feet  for  planting  apple-trees,  except  for  certain  varie- 


LAYING   OUT  THE  GROUND.  73 

ties,  like  the  Westfield  Seek-no-further,  Northern  Spy,  and 
some  others,  the  tops  of  which  are  never  incHned  to  spread, 
like  the  Tompkins  County  King.  It  is  an  excellent  practice, 
when  planting  an  orchard,  to  plant  varieties  that  grow  erect, 
alternately,  with  such  trees  as  have  wide-spreading  tops. 

Rows  at  Right  Angles. — The  diagram  herewith  given 
(Fig.  39)   will  aid   the  intelligent  .  Fig.  39. 

pomologist  in  staking  out  ground  ^J 
so  that  the  rows  will  run  at  right 
angles,  with  as  much  accuracy  as  if 
the  angle  had  been  formed  with  a 
compass.  The  first  step  will  be 
to  prepare  as  many  stakes  as  there 
are  trees  to  be  planted.  Then  set  ^^^y^^g  out  a  right  angle, 
a  row  of  stakes,  say  thirty-three  feet  apart,  on  the  front 
side  of  the  orchard,  represented  by  the  line  A  B.  The  most 
convenient  way  of  measuring  will  be  to  make  a  light  pole 
of  the  desired  length,  so  as  to  avoid  all  errors  in  measuring. 
IN'ow,  to  find  the  correct  angle,  stretch  a  chalk  line,  A  B,  in 
the  line  of  the  first  row  of  stakes.  Then  stretch  another 
line,  C  D,  as  represented,  so  that  the  lines  will  cross  at  E, 
exactly  at  the  desired  corner  of  the  plot.  Measure  with  a 
ten-foot  pole  on  the  line  A  B,  six  feet  from  the  central  in- 
tersection of  the  lines  at  E,  and  thrust  a  pin  through  the 
line.  At  eight  feet  from  E,  stick  another  pin  through  the 
line  C  D.  If  the  lines  cross  each  other  at  a  right  angle,  the 
measurement  will  be,  as  indicated  by  the  diagram,  six,  eight, 
afid  ten  feet,  from  pins  to  the  corner,  and  from  pin  to  pin. 
The  next  step  will  be  to  set  a  row  of  stakes  in  the  line  C 
D.  Fig.  40,  page  74,  will  enable  the  operator  to  proceed  in 
setting  the  remainder  of  the  stakes.  Having  set  all  the 
stakes  in  the  line  A  B,  let  them  be  set  also  in  the  line  A  D. 
Then  lay  out  the  angle  A  B  C,  as  shown  by  the  diagram,  and 
set  the  stakes  from  B  to  C ;  after  which,  measure  the  dis- 

4 


74  THE  APPLE  CULTUBIST. 

tances  from  D  to  C,  and  set  the 

Fig.  40.  AT 

^  ^  *  +  *  *  •  ,*  stakes.  A  row  of  stakes  now  ap- 
pears on  every  side  of  the  orchard. 
If  the  soil  is  smooth  and  mellow, 
*******  the  most  expeditious  way  will  be 
*******  to  make  a  mark  by  dragging  a 
^      *     *     ♦     *     ♦     ♦    heavy  chain  from  one  side  of  the 

orchard  to  the  other ;  then  set  the 

*******  ' 

stakes  where  the  marks  intersect. 
*******     One   person    can    stake    out   the 

Kows  at  right  angles.  i    •       .i  •  •,!      .i 

ground  in  this  manner  with  the 
most  satisfactory  exactness.  After  the  stakes  are  all  set, 
cast  the  eye  along  each  row,  and  if  any  stake  is  one  inch 
out  of  the  line,  let  it  be  adjusted.  Another  good  way,  after 
setting  the  outside  stakes,  is  to  let  one  person  set  the  re- 
maining stakes,  while  two  other  persons — one  on  each  side 
of  the  orchard — direct  where  to  plant  each  stake,  by  sight- 
ing across  the  plot,  from  one  outside  stake  to  another.  A 
ten-acre  field  can  be  staked  out,  according  to  the  foregoing 
plan,  in  a  few  hours  after  the  stakes  are  provided.  A  good 
substitute  for  one-half  the  stakes  would  be  large  corn-cobs 
stuck  in  the  stake-holes,  after  the  correct  point  has  been 
found  by  employing  tall  stakes. 

Planting  Trees  in  the  Quincunx  Style. — The  ancient 
quincunx  style  of  planting  trees  consists  in  setting  one  tree 
at  the  central  intersection  of  two  lines  crossing  each  other 
in  a  diagonal  direction,  from  four  trees  set  in  the  form  of  a 
hollow  square.  (See  Quincunx,  p.  329.)  But  trees  can  not 
be  placed  so  uniformly  over  the  ground  when  planted  in 
this  manner  as  when  set  out  in  the  usual  way,  with  rows  ex- 
tending in  two  directions.  The  modern  quincunx  style  of 
planting  trees  consists  in  setting  them  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  distance  from  one  to  another,  throughout  the  or- 
chard or  vineyard,  shall  be  uniform.     In  other  words,  any 


LAYING   OUT  THE  GROUND. 


75 


Synonyms.— ^iQQWB  Eed  Winter,  Butters,  Eed  Baldwin,  Pecker,  Woodpecker, 
and  Felch.  The  fruit  is  of  good  size,  roundish,  striped  with  crimson ;  in  the  sun- 
shine, the  apples  are  often  of  an  orange  and  red  color,  covered  with  a  few  russet 
dots,  and  with  radiating  streaks  of  russet  about  the  stem  ;  flesh,  yellowish-white, 
crisp,  with  an  agreeable  mingling  of  the  saccharine  and  acid,  which  constitutes  a 
rich  flavor.  The  tree  is  a  fine  bearer,  vigorous  and  upright  in  growth ;  season, 
from  November  to  March.  The  Baldwin  is  one  of  the  most  profitable  apples 
raised  for  market. 

four  trees  will  be  found  to  stand  at  the  angles  of  a  plot  of 
ground  of  a  rhomboidal  form,  and  any  tree  in  the  orchard 
within  the  outside  row  will  stand  exactly  in  the  centre  of  a 
circle,  in  which  circle  six  other  trees  are  standing  all  at  a 
uniform  distance  apart.  If  apple-trees,  for  example,  be  set 
thirty  feet  apart,  in  the  usual  manner,  or  in  the  old  quin- 
cunx order,  one  row  more  of  trees  may  be  set  on  one  acre, 
by  adopting  the  modern  quincunx  style;  and  yet  all  the 
trees  will  be  thirty  feet  distant  from  each  other  over  the 
entire  orchard.     Planting  fruit-trees  or  grape-vines  in  the 


76  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

modern  quincunx  order,  distributes  them  more  uniformly- 
over  the  ground  than  if  planted  in  any  other  manner. 
Whatever  is  put  out  in  this  style  will  stand  in  straight 
rows  in  four  different  directions.  Indian  corn,  or  any 
other  crop  that  grows  in  hills,  may  be  cultivated  in  the 
quincunx  order  more  satisfactorily  and  profitably  than  if 
the  rows  were  to  cross  each  other  at  right  angles.  When 
rows  are  formed  in  the  modern  quincunx  order,  the  horse- 
hoe  may  be  run  four  different  ways  between  them,  thus  en- 
abling the  cultivator  or  horse-hoe  to  do  the  work  of  pulver- 
ization, or  rooting  up  the  weeds  and  grass,  more  thorough- 
ly than  when  the  implement  can  be  driven  only  one  or  two 
ways. 

Planting  trees  and  grape-vines  in  the  modern  quincunx 
order  has  frequently  been  recommended  as  the  most  desir- 
able way  of  putting  them  out.  But  the  writers  told  every 
thing  about  the  operation  except  what  a  practical  man  de- 
sires to  know,  and  what  a  beginner  must  understand  before 
he  can  proceed  to  lay  out  the  ground  correctly.  Some  writ- 
ers— who  probably  never  attempted  to  stake  out  ground 
in  the  quincunx  order — have  even  given  the  number  of  feet, 
inches,  and  fractions  of  an  inch,  from  tree  to  tree,  when 
measuring  at  a  right  angle.  But  working-men,  who  are  not 
accustomed  to  measuring  inches  and  fractions  of  inches, 
need  a  more  convenient  and  expeditious  way  of  staking  out 
ground  than  to  measure  with  a  two-foot  rule,  from  one 
point  to  another,  on  the  surface.  When  the  ground  is  cor- 
rectly laid  out  in  the  modern  quincunx  order,  the  plot  be- 
tween any  three  corners,  or  between  any  three  trees,  will  be 
exactly  in  the  form  of  an  equilateral  triangle.  If,  for  exam- 
ple, it  were  desirable  to  mark  out  the  ground  in  a  large  field 
for  planting  Indian  corn  or  potatoes  in  the  modern  quincunx 
order,  the  correct  and  easy  way  would  be  to  do  the  mark- 
ing as  usual,  all  one  way,  first,  by  commencing  on  the  long- 


LAYING   OUT  THE  G MOUND. 


11 


est  side  of  the  field.  Then,  after  the  marks  have  all  been 
made  in  one  direction,  the  cross-marking  should  be  com- 
menced near  the  middle  of  the  plot,  or  where  the  rows 
will  be  the  longest,  marking  each  way  from  the  middle  of 
the  field.  The  idea  will  be  to  run  the  marker  across  the 
first  marks  at  an  angle  of  about  sixty  degrees.  The  cor- 
rect direction  may  be  readily  ascertained  by  the  aid  of  a 
surveyor's  compass.  But  an  inexperienced  beginner  sel- 
dom has  the  advantage  of  such  an  instrument;  and  even 
if  he  does  possess  one,  there  are  thousands  who  must  rely 
on  some  more  simple  and  cheap  device,  to  aid  them  in  the 
performance  of  such  a  job. 

The  accompanying  illustration,  representing  a  sweep  for 
marking  out  ground, 
is  a  figure  of  a  device 
which  we  have  em- 
ployed in  laying  out 
the  ground  for  grape- 
vines and  fruit-trees. 
The  sweep  was  made 
by  securing  two  light 
strips  of  wood,  A  A, 
to  the  stakes  B  B, 
with  small  round 
bolts,  or  with  large  wood  screws,  so  that  the  horizontal 
bars  may  be  turned  a  little,  like  a  hinge.  The  stakes  should 
be  about  five  feet  long,  two  inches  in  diameter,  either  round 
or  square,  and  pointed,  so  that  the  lower  ends  may  be  thrust 
into  the  ground  at  pleasure.  With  such  a  device,  two  boys, 
or  illiterate  laborers,  who  do  not  know  an  angle  from  a  par- 
allel of  latitude,  may  proceed  to  mark  out  ground  for  any 
thing  with  as  much  facility  and  dispatch  as  an  experienced 
surveyor  can  do  it  with  a  compass.  It  will  be  very  difficult 
to  do  the  work  wrong  if  the  first  row  is  only  staked  out 


A  sweep  for  markiug  out  the  places  for  trees. 


78 


THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 


*     *     * 
*     *     * 


*     * 
* 


Fig.  42. 

Length,  29  rods. 

d 

*      *      *      *      * 

|c      *      * 
*      *      * 


*      * 
* 


straight.  It  will  be  understood  that  the  stakes  of  the  sweep 
must  be  set  as  one  would  adjust  the  points  of  dividers,  or 
the  points  of  a  mechanic's  compass,  just  as  far  apart  as  the 
trees  are  to  be  planted.  After  the  sweep  is  ready  for  use, 
the  following  diagram  will  aid  still  further  in  finding  the 

exact  spot  where 
each  tree  or  vine 
is  to  stand. 

We  will  sup- 
pose, for  exam- 
ple, that  a  field  of 
%  a  square  or  irreg- 
3  ular  form  is  to  be 
i  planted  with  ap- 
^  pie-trees  to  stand 
I  thirty  feet  apart. 
Commence  on 
the  longest  side 
of  the  field,  and 
stick  one  row 
of  stakes  in  a 
straight  line,  ex- 
actly thirty  feet  apart.  The  distances  should  be  indicated 
with  the  points  of  the  sweep.  See  that  this  row  of  stakes 
stands  in  a  straight  line.  If  there  be  any  crooks  in  the 
first  row,  the  same  trifling  variation  will  be  multiplied  as 
the  marking  progresses.  Let  the  stakes  be  driven  at  least 
one  foot  into  the  ground,  so  that  the  point  where  the  tree 
is  to  stand  may  not  be  lost.  IN^ow,  to  ascertain  the  places 
for  the  trees  in  the  second  row,  take  up  the  end  stake  in 
the  first  row,  and  plant  one  point  of  the  sweep  in  the  stake- 
hole  at  a  (Fig.  42).  There  should  be  one  person  at  each 
end  of  the  sweep.  The  point  of  the  sweep  at  a  should  be 
held  securely  in  the  hole  while  the  person  at  h  describes 


* 

c     e 
&     / 


The  modern  qniucunx  order. 


LAYING   OUT  THE  GROUND.  79 

a  part  of  a  circle  with  his  point  of  the  sweep,  about  where 
he  judges  the  tree  must  stand.  Now  let  a  caiTy  his  end  of 
the  sweep  to  c,  and  plant  the  point  in  the  stake-hole,  and 
hold  the  sweep  firmly  while  the  operator  at  h  makes  a 
mark  with  his  point  of  the  sweep  across  the  first  mark. 
Here,  then,  will  be  three  points  indicated  with  as  much 
mathematical  precision  as  if  they  had  been  found  by  the 
aid  of  a  surveyor's  compass.  The  beginning  is  practically 
as  perfect  as  any  piece  of  work  can  be ;  and  if  the  opera- 
tors will  be  careful  to  plant  every  stake  exactly  at  the  cen- 
tral intersection  of  the  marks  made  by  the  point  of  the 
sweep,  as  at «,  b,  c,  the  stakes  will  all  stand  in  rows  satisfac- 
torily straight  when  the  work  of  laying  out  the  ground 
has  been  finished.  Let  the  person  at  b  thrust  the  point  of 
the  sweep  into  the  ground,  and  set  a  stake  in  the  hole. 
Then  carry  the  end  of  the  sweep  to  €,  and  make  a  circular 
mark,  say  four  feet  in  length.  Now  let  one  of  the  points 
of  the  sweep  be  placed  in  the  stake-hole  at  f,  and  the  place 
where  the  circular  marks  cross  each  other  at  e  will  be  the 

Fig.  43. 

'^^\        .'^^         y^-         '^x         /^^         ^- 
/      \\\/7/  \V\ ///  \\\ ///  \\\ ///  \\\ ///      \ 

I i^ii^.-...:::;^---^  • 


Orchard  laid  out  in  the  modern  quincunx  order. 


80  THE  APPLE  CULTVRIST. 

point  to  make  a  hole  for  the  stake  at  e.  This  explanation 
will  be  sufficient  to  enable  any  person  of  ordinary  intelli- 
gence to  stake  out  his  ground  with  as  much  dispatch  as 
the  stakes  can  be  set  in  the  usual  manner.  After  the 
stakes  have  all  been  put  in  their  places,  should  some  of 
them  vary  from  a  line,  they  may  readily  be  set  straight. 
If  the  ground  be  all  marked  out  in  circles  just  touching 
each  other,  the  points  at  which  the  circles  intersect  will 
show  the  places  to  plant  trees. 

Staking  out  Ground  in  Triangles. — The  ground  can  be 
staked  out  in  triangles  with  no  other  measure  than  a  ten  or 
twenty  foot  pole,  with  as  much  accuracy  as  it  can  be  done 
with  a  surveyor's  compass.  We  will  suppose,  for  example, 
that  the  trees  are  to  be  set  thirty-three  feet  apart.  In  the 
first  place,  make  a  light  pole  of  the  desired  length,  thirty- 
three  feet,  and  set  a  row  of  stakes  on  the  longest  side — if 
there  be  any  difference  in  the  distance — of  the  ground,  as 
represented  by  a  o,  in  the  diagram,  page  78.  Let  the  stakes 
be  small  and  straight,  and  at  least  four  feet  high.  Now  let 
one  person  hold  one  end  of  the  pole  at  the  end  stake,  a, 
while  another  makes  a  mark  at  the  other  end,  c.  Then  let 
the  end  at  a  be  carried  to  b,  while  the  end  at  c  is  retained 
at  the  same  point  where  the  two  marks  at  c  intersect.  Let 
a  small  stake  be  set  at  e.  Next  place  the  pole  from  b  to  ^, 
and  from  e  to  /.  At  e  and  c  will  be  the  places  to  set  trees. 
Let  the  stakes  at  a  c  be  set  perpendicularly.  Now  let  a 
stake  be  set  up  at  d,  so  that  a  c  and  d  will  stand  in  a  line. 
Then  set  a  stake  every  thirty-three  feet — or  the  length  of 
the  measuring-pole  apart — in  the  line  from  c  to  d.  Let  the 
measuring  be  done  with  accuracy,  and  let  the  stakes  be  set 
perpendicularly.  This  second  row  of  stakes  will  constitute 
a  reliable  guide  to  aid  in  finding  the  correct  points  for  other 
stakes.  Now  with  the  measuring-pole  find  the  point  for 
another  stake  at  g,  by  placing  one  end  of  the  pole  at  o,  and 


LAYING   OUT  THE  GROUND.  81 

the  Other  end  at  g.  Having  set  a  stake  at  o,  and  one  at  g, 
measure  with  the  pole,  and  set  stakes  in  the  line  o  g  d,  the 
length  of  the  pole  apart.  The  principal  points  of  the  entire 
plot  are  now  fixed  with  such  accuracy  that  one  person  may- 
stand  at  h,  and  move  towards  a,  while  another  sets  all  the 
stakes  in  the  row,  o  k.  After  a  row  has  been  set  from  a  to 
o,  a  row  across  the  ends  at  d  k,  another  row  from  a  to  d, 
and  from  o  to  d,  the  remainder  of  the  stakes  can  be  stuck 
at  the  desired  points,  without  measuring,  by  simply  setting 
each  stake  in  a  line,  in  two  directions,  with  those  stakes  that 
have  been  driven  in  the  right  places. 

It  will  be  perceived  by  the  two  diagrams  given  on  pages 
74  and  78,  that  they  both  represent  a  plot  of  ground  twen- 
ty-nine rods  long  by  twenty-seven  and  a  half  wide,  em- 
bracing just  ten  square  rods  over  five  acres.  The  spaces 
indicated  between  the  places  for  trees,  as  may  be  seen,  rep- 
resent exactly  two  rods,  or  thiity-three  feet.  The  points 
may  be  counted  in  the  diagrams  quite  as  well  as  if  a  five- 
acre  lot  were  before  us  all  properly  staked  out.  If  trees 
were  to  be  planted  on  two  such  plots,  there  would  be  a  gain 
of  space  for  thirty  trees  by  planting  in  the  quincunx  order, 
while  no  two  or  three  would  be  crowded.  If  the  trees  were 
to  be  set  only  half  the  distance  apart,  there  would  be  a  gain 
of  space  for  sixty  trees,  as  any  one  can  calculate  for  him- 
self. 

In  case  it  were  desirable  to  set  pear-trees,  peach-trees,  or 
grape-vines  in  the  quincunx  order,  all  that  will  be  requisite 
is  to  make  a  pole  of  the  desired  length,  and  set  a  row  of 
stakes  six,  ten,  or  sixteen  feet  apart,  on  one  side  of  jthe  plot 
at  a  0,  Fig.. 42.  Then  proceed  to  measure  with  the  pole  as 
directed,  to  find  the  proper  angle  for  setting  the  other  rows. 

Another  way  for  marking  out  ground  in  a  triangular  form, 
or  in  the  quincunx  order,  is  to  procure  three  poles  of  a  uni- 
form length — say  sixteen  and  a  half  feet  long — and  bolt  or 

4* 


82  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

^^s-44.  nail  the  corners  together, 

as  represented  by  Fig.  44, 
which  will  give  the  same 
results  as  laying  out  by  cir- 
cles, or  as  directed  in  the 
preceding  paragraphs.  It 
will  be  seen  that  three  poles 
of  equal  length,  placed  with 
the  ends  together  as  repre- 
sented, will  give  the  exact 
angle  for  a  hexagonal  fig- 

A  triangular  rule  for  laying  out  orchards.  ^^.^^  f^j.  ^^  equilateral  tri- 
angle, and  for  the  modern  quincunx  order.  Let  a  piece  of 
plank  be  nailed  in  each  corner  as  shown,  and  a  two-inch 
hole  bored  at  the  end  of  each  piece  for  stakes,  and  a  rule 
will  be  produced  for  laying  out;  ground  for  trees  which  any 
person  can  use  without  making  mistakes.  After  a  person 
has  used  such  a  rule  for  a  few  minutes,  he  will  be  pleased 
with  the  great  convenience  of  the  arrangement.  Three 
straight  and  smooth  stakes  will  be  required — one  for  each 
hole  or  corner  of  the  rule. 

We  once  marked  out  the  ground  for  grape-vines,  in  this 
manner,  eight  feet  apart ;  and  also  the  ground  for  peach- 
trees,  sixteen  feet  apart,  by  the  assistance  of  a  boy,  who 
quickly  learned  to  set  his  stakes  with  satisfactory  accuracy. 
If  the  operators  are  careful  to  measure  accurately,  there 
will  be  no  more  difficulty  in  planting  trees  in  the  quincunx 
order  than  m  rows  running  at  right  angles. 

To  facilitate  the  labor  of  getting  every  tree  in  the  de- 
sired position,  procure  a  board,  h  (Fig.  45,  represented  on 
the  following  page),  about  ten  feet  long  and  eight  inches 
wide,  and  scollop  out  a  half-circle  for  the  stake,  a,  which 
stake  represents  the  exact  point  where  the  tree  is  to  stand. 
When  the  hole  is  about  to  be  dug,  where  the  stake,  a. 


LAYING   OUT  THE  GROUND. 


83 


stands,  place  the  board  to  the  stake,  as  shown;  then  put 
two  smooth  stakes,  c,  c,  through  holes,  into  the  ground. 
The    stakes,    c,   c,   must  Fig.  45.   remain  until  the  tree  is 


now  the  stake,  a,  and 
the  board,  h,  back  over 
a,  tree  in  the  scollop  where 
the  hole  was  dug.  By- 
fixtures,  one 
plant  trees 
most  sat- 
isfactory A  gauge-board.  accuracy, 
without  having  a  second  or  third  helper  to  hold  the  tree.  If 
the  stake  a  is  in  the  correct  spot,  the  tree  will  stand  in  line. 


in  its  place.  Remove 
board,  J,  dig  the  hole,  put 
the  stakes  c,  c,  and  set  the 
the  stake  a  stood  before 
using  such 
person  can 
with      the 


TEANSCENBENT   CRAB-APPLE. 

Fruit,  medium  to  large  for  its  class ;  roundish-oblong,  flattened  at  its  ends, 
slightly  but  regularly  ribbed ;  golden  yellow,  with  a  rich,  crimson  red  cheek  in 
the  sun,  covered  with  a  delicate  white  bloom;  when  fully  ripe,  the  red  nearly  cov-, 
ers  the  whole  surface.  Stem,  long  and  slender,  set  in  an  open,  deep  cavity ;  calyx 
closed,  with  long  reflexed  segments ;  flesh,  creamy-yellow,  crisp,  sub-acid,  a  little 
astringent  until  fully  mellow,  when  it  is  pleasant  and  agreeable ;  seeds,  full  and 
abundant ;  leaf,  broad,  oval,  with  an  acute  point,  and  narrow,  sharp,  regular  ser- 
ratures ;  season,  early  autumn  to  winter.  The  stem  is  represented  much  shorter 
than  it  usually  appears  on  most  of  the  apples. 


84  THE  APPLE  CULTUEIST. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

REMOVING    AND    TRANSPLANTING    BOTH     OLD    AND     YOUNG 

TREES. 

The  crowded  roots  demand  enlargement  now, 

And  transplantation  in  an  ampler  space. 

Indulged  in  what  they  wish,  they  soon  supply 

Large  foliage,  o'ershadowing  golden  flowers. 

Blown  on  the  summit  of  the  promised  fruit.— Cowpee's  Task. 

The  chief  idea  to  be  kept  in  mind,  in  order  to  transplant 
any  tree  with  satisfactory  success,  is  to  take  up  every  root 
and  rootlet  without  the  least  mutilation,  and  bury  them  all 
back  again  in  a  mellow  seed-bed,  no  deeper  nor  more  shal- 
low than  they  were  when  taken  up.  If  this  could  be  done 
properly,  no  tree  would  ever  suffer  injury  from  a  removal. 
The  act  of  planting  a  tree  is  an  important  one.  We  com- 
mit it  to  the  soil,  as  we  would  send  a  youth  into  the  world, 
to  sustain  a  separate  and  independent  existence.  Nursed 
no  longer  under  the  eye  of  the  propagator,  it  must  contend 
with  the  storms,  floods,  and  vicissitudes  of  climate,  with  a 
broiling  sun  and  killing  frost,  developing  as  it  best  may  its 
system  of  branches,  buds,  leaves,  blossoms,  and  fruit,  ac- 
cording to  its  nature,  for  our  especial  benefit,  as  well  as  to 
add  to  the  beauty  of  this  pleasing  world.  How  scrupulous- 
ly careful,  then,  should  we  be  in  planting  a  tree — an  apple- 
tree,  perchance,  which  we  expect  to  pour  an  annual  offering 
of  rich,  glowing,  and  luscious  fruit  in  our  lap ;  or  a  pear, 
whose  melting  gifts  are  eagerly  sought  after  by  impatient 
cultivators,  too  willing  to  reap  the  harvest  before  they  have 
sown  the  crop,  with  intelligence,  skill,  and  perseverance ;  or, 
still  more  pleasing,  the  soft  and  roseate  peach,  so  often  nip- 


REMOVING  AND  TMANSFLANTING   TREES,  86 

ped  in  the  bud  by  stern  winter's  frost.  There  are  few  op- 
erations in  our  husbandry  in  which  so  much  want  of  reflec- 
tion, not  to  say  gross  and  willful  neglect,  is  displayed  as  in 
the  transplanting  of  trees,  whether  for  fruit  or  ornament. 
It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that  in  this,  as  in  all  other 
branches  of  rural  industry,  great  improvement  has  taken 
place  within  the  last  thirty  or  forty  years,  since  agricultur- 
ists commenced  to  read  and  reason  on  the  princij)les  that 
are  involved  and  brought  into  action  and  practice  of  every 
branch  of  their  business,  as  well  as  in  the  manufacturing  of 
leather,  iron,  or  any  other  article.  Roots  of  trees  usually 
strike  downward  instead  of  upward;  and  nearly  all  kinds 
of  trees,  whether  fruit  or  forest  trees,  send  out  a  system  of 
roots  just  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  If  w^e  exam- 
ine the  forest-trees — unless  they  are  standing  on  a  very 
loose  and  porous  soil — we  find  that,  although  the  tap-voot% 
of  trees  may  strike  several  feet  deep  in  the  earth,  there  is  a 
system  of  numerous  roots  near  the  surface  of  the  earth,  on 
which  the  trees  depend  almost  entirely  for  sustenance.  Let 
earth  be  hauled  and  placed  around  a  flourishing  tree,  a  foot 
or  more  in  depth,  and  that  tree  will  soon  send  out  a  sys- 
tem of  roots  all  around  it  near  the  surface  of  the  soil.  It 
is  absolutely  essential  that  all  the  interstices  among  the 
roots  be  well  filled,  settling  the  fine  earth,  if  need  be,  by 
pouring  in  water.  If  large  cavities  are  left  the  frost  may 
destroy  them.  This  is  the  reason  that  some  persons  have 
been  unsuccessful  in  keeping  trees  through  winter. 

Suggestions  to  be  observed  when  Transplanting  Trees.— 
Beginners  in  fruit-culture  will  do  well  to  read  over  the  fol- 
lowing concise  rules,  until  they  thoroughly  understand  the 
correct  theory  and  practice  of  transplanting  any  kind  of 
trees  or  vines : 

1.  When  a  tree  is  taken  up,  endeavor  to  take  at  least  one- 
twentieth  part  of  the  small  roots.     The  practice  usually  is 


86 


THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 


to  leave  so  many  of  the  roots  where  a  tree  grew,  that  it  is 
no  exaggeration  to  say  that^Ae  roots  were  left  behind. 

2.  Trees  should  always  be  set  about  as  deep  as  they  stood 
before  digging  up. 

3.  A  small  or  moderate-sized  tree  at  the  time  of  trans- 
planting, will  usually  be  a  large  bearing  tree  sooner  than  a 
larger  tree  set  out  at  the  same  time,  and  which  is  checked 
necessarily  in  growth  by  removal. 


KING  OF  TOMPKINS  OOXTNTT. 

S't/nonyms.— King  Apple,  Tom's  Bed,  Tommy  Eed.  The  fruit  of  this  apple  i8 
very  large  and  globular,  inclining  to  conic,  sometimes  oblate  and  angular :  the 
ground  color  is  usually  of  a  yellowish  hue,  shaded  with  red,  striped  and  splashed 
with  crimson  ;  the  flesh  is  yellowish,  sometimes  rather  coarse,  but  juicy  and  ten- 
der, with  an  exceedingly  agreeable  and  rich  vinous  flavor,  delightfully  aromatic 
This  is  one  of  the  choicest  varieties  for  almost  any  locality ;  season,  from  De- 
cember to  March.  The  tree  has  a  large  and  spreading  top,  and  produce^  abun- 
dantly. 


REMOVING   AND   TRANSPLANTING   TREES.  8 '7 

4.  Manure  should  never  be  placed  in  contact  with  the 
roots  of  a  tree  in  setting  it  out ;  but  finely  pulverized  earthy- 
compost  may  be  employed.  Young  trees  may  be  manured 
to  great  advantage  by  spreading  manure  over  a  circle  whose 
radius  is  equal  to  the  height  of  the  tree,  in  autumn  or  early 
winter,  and  spading  this  manure  in,  in  spring. 

5.  If  the  roots  of  a  tree  are  frozen  out  of  the  ground, 
and  thawed  again  while  in  contact  with  air,  the  tree  will  be 
killed.  If  the  frozen  roots  are  well  buried,  filling  all  cavi- 
ties before  thawing  any  at  all,  the  tree  will  be  uninjured. 

""  6.  Never  set  young  trees  in  a  grass  field,  or  among 
wheat  or  other  sowed  grain.  Clover  is  still  worse,  as  the 
roots  go  deep,  and  rob  the  tree  roots.  The  whole  surface 
should  be  clean  and  mellow ;  or,  if  any  crops  are  suffered, 
they  should  be  potatoes,  carrots,,  turnips,  or  other  low  hoed 
crops.  If  an  area  round  about  each  tree,  as  far  as  the 
branches  extend,  be  properly  mulched  with  coarse  manure, 
grass  or  clover  may  be  cultivated  in  an  orchard. 

7.  The  roots  extend  nearly  as  far  on  each  side  as  the 
height  of  the  tree ;  hence,  to  dig  up  the  soil  by  cutting  a 
circle  with  the  spade,  two  feet  in  diameter,  the  spade  will 
sever  nine-tenths  of  the  roots ;  and  to  spade  a  little  circle 
about  a  young  tree,  not  one-quarter  as  far  as  the  roots  ex- 
tend, and  call  it  "  cultivation,"  is  like  Falstaff's  men  claim- 
ing spurs  and  a  shirt  collar  for  a  complete  suit  of  clothes. 

8.  Watering  a  tree  in  dry  weather  affords  but  temporary 
relief,  and  often  does  more  harm  than  good  by  crusting  the 
surface.  Keeping  the  surface  constantly  mellow  is  much 
more  valuable  and  important;  or  if  this  can  not  be  done, 
mulch  well.  If  watering  is  ever  done  from  necessity,  re- 
move the  top  earth,  pour  in  the  water,  and  then  replace 
the  earth;  then  mulch,  or  keep  the  surface  very  mellow. 
Shrivelled  trees  may  be  made  plump  before  planting,  by 
covering  tops  and  all  with  earth  for  several  days.     Water- 


88  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

ing  trees  before  they  expand  their  leaves  should  not  be 
done  by  pouring  water  at  the  roots,  but  by  keeping  the 
hark  of  the  stem  and  branches  frequently  or  constantly 
moist.  Trees  in  leaf  and  in  rapid  growth  may  be  watered 
at  the  roots,  if  done  properly,  as  directed. 

9.  Warm  valleys  with  a  rich  soil  are  more  liable  to 
cause  destruction  to  trees  or  their  crops  by  cold  than 
moderate  hills  of  more  exposure,  and  with  less  fertile  soil, 
the  cold  air  settling  at  the  bottom  of  the  valleys  during 
the  sharpest  frosts,  and  the  rich  soil  making  the  trees  grow 
too  late  in  autumn,  without  ripening  and  hardening  the 
wood  of  the  branches. 

10.  Drain  the  ground  if  it  is  at  all  wet;  and  commence 
the  work  of  pulverization  and  subsoiling  at  least  one  year 
before  young  trees  or  seeds  are  planted. 

11.  Remember  that  fruit-trees  need  to  be  fed  every  year, 
in  order  that  they  may  yield  large,  smooth,  and  luscious 
fruit.  Trees  can  not  concoct  fruit  out  of  material  that  will 
not  make  fruit. 

12.  Recollect  that  it  is  far  better  to  procure  trees  from  a 
poor  soil  than  from  one  that  has  been  highly  manured ;  and 
it  is  better  still  to  rear  your  own  trees  from  the  seed  where 
they  are  to  grow. 

13.  The  excavations  where  trees  are  to  stand  should  be 
so  broad  that  the  roots  can  readily  spread  to  the  next  row 
without  meeting  with  unbroken  ridges  of  hard-pan. 

14.  Beware  of  planting  fruit-trees  too  deep,  especially  on 
heavy  soils.  On  light,  loamy  soils  they  should  be  set,  in 
some  instances,  four  to  six  inches  deeper  than  on  a  heavy 
soil,  according  to  the  lightness  and  porosity  of  the  land.  It 
is  a  safe  rule,  however,  to  set  no  deeper  than  the  trees  stood 
in  the  nursery ;  and  this  can  easily  be  determined  by  their 
appearance  at  the  base.  Every  fibre  should  be  extended  in 
its  proper  direction,  and  carefully  surrounded  with  compost. 


BEMOVING  AND  TRANSPLANTING   TREES.  89 

Xo  cavities  should  be  left  in  covering  the  roots,  nor  should 
one  be  injured  by  the  hand  or  spade. 

15.  Let  every  tree  be  transplanted  as  soon  as  practicable 
after  it  is  taken  up,  and  let  the  roots  always  be  protected 
from  sunshine  and  drying  winds  until  they  can  be  buried  in 
the  soil.  Drying  and  exposure  to  the  air  always  injures 
roots.  The  longer  the  exposure  and  the  greater  the  drying 
process,  the  greater,  of  course,  is  the  injury.  Digging  up 
trees  when  destitute  of  leaves,  and  leaving  them  an  hour  or 
two  in  the  shade,  produces  little  or  no  harm;  but  they 
should  not  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  sun,  nor  be  exposed 
for  a  whole  day  to  the  wind.  If  they  can  not  be  set  out  or 
packed  immediately,  they  should  have  the  roots  plunged  in 
a  bed  of  mud,  to  give  the  surface  a  thin  coating ;  or  the 
roots  should  be  immediately  buried  in  mellow  soil  or  sand, 
until  further  operations  are  commenced  with  them. 

16.  When  trees  of  any  kind  are  purchased,  it  is  always 
better,  in  every  respect,  to  choose  young  trees,  say  two  or 
three  years  old,  that  are  vigorous  and  bushy,  than  to  pur- 
chase large  ones,  four  or  five  years  old.  As  a  rule,  fruit- 
trees  that  are  far  brought  are  dearly  bought;  and  a  person 
seldom  orders  trees  from  a  distance  but  once.  By  looking 
around,  most  persons  can  find  good  trees  in  their  own  town. 
But  the  safest  and  best  way  is  to  raise  the  trees  where  they 
are  to  grow.  It  does  not  require  so  long  a  time  to  rear  an 
orchard  as  many  seem  to  think. 

Practical  Operations. — The  illustration  herewith  given 
(Fig.  46,  p.  90)  will  give  the  beginner  a  more  definite  idea 
of  the  great  extent  of  the  roots  of  a  young  tree,  and  of  the  la- 
bor required  in  transplanting  a  fruit  correctly.  After  the  ex- 
cavation has  been  made  sufficiently  broad  and  deep  to  receive 
every  root  when  extended  to  its  full  length,  place  the  gauge- 
board,  h  (Fig.  45),  over  the  pins,  c,  c,  and  set  the  tree  with  the 
body  in  the  scollop,  holding  it  erect  with  one  hand  while  a  few 


90 


THE  APPLE  VULTURIST. 


Fig.  46. 


Extent  of  the  roots  of  a  young  apple-tree. 


shovelfuls  of  mellow  soil 
are  scattered  over  the 
roots.  If  the  ground  is 
at  all  compact  in  the  bot 
tom  of  the  excavation, 
make  a  deep  hole  with  a 
large  crowbar,  to  receive 
the  tap-root,  if  there  is 
such  an  appendage;  and 
if  a  long  lateral  can  be 
obtained,  let  it  be  thrust 
down  into  the  hole,  af- 
ter which  fill  the  hole 
with  mellow  soil  or  rich 
mould.  The  object  of 
the  tap-root  is  to  supply 
the  tree  with  moisture  in 
hot  and  dry  weather.  If 
the  ground  is  poor,  let 
a  load  of  mellow  soil  be 


carted  from  a  distant  field,  or  plough  up  the  turf  along  the 
highway  for  the  purpose.  Spread  out  the  little  fibres,  and 
cover  them  with  rich,  mellow  soil.  Much  of  the  success  of 
transplanting  depends  on  bringing  the  soil  in  contact  with 
every  fibre,  so  as  to  leave  no  hollow  to  cause  the  decay  of 
the  roots.  Not  only  must  this  be  secured  by  patiently  fill- 
ing in  the  cavities  among  and  under  the  roots,  but,  where 
the  trees  are  not  small,  it  is  customary  to  pour  in  a  pail  of 
water  when  the  roots  are  nearly  covered  with  soil.  The 
water  carries  the  liquid  mould  to  every  hidden  part.  After 
the  water  has  settled  away,  fill  up  the  hole.  Avoid  press- 
ing the  earth  about  the  tree  with  the  foot.  In  windy 
situations  it  will  be  necessary  to  place  a  stake  each  side  of 
the  tree,  to  hold  it  upright ;  or,  if  large  stones  are  at  hand, 


REMOVING  AND  TRANSPLANTING   TREES. 


91 


Fig.  4T. 


place  a  layer  of  them  near  the  tree,  which  will  not  only 
secure  the  tree  from  moving  to  and  fro,  but  will  often  pre- 
vent teams  and  implements  from  passing  over  small  trees. 

Before  any  tree  is  transplanted,  the  end  of  every  mutilated 
root  should  be  cut  off  smoothly.  If  roots  have  been  bruised 
badly,  it  is  always  better  to  cut  off  every  thing  beyond  the 
bruise. 

Staking  Fruit-trees. — The  accompanying  illustration  (Fig. 
47)  represents  the  correct  way  of  staking  trees.  When  a 
stake  is  driven  down  near  a  small  tree,  i^  often  obstructs  the 
growth  of  the  roots ;  and  if  a  large  stake 
is  driven  after  a  tree  is  transplanted,  a 
root  is  sometimes  badly  mutilated.  But 
if  stakes  are  set  as  represented  by  the  fig- 
ure, they  will  not  interfere  with  the  roots. 
Fruit-trees  should  never  be  staked  for 
the  purpose  of  holding  a  tall  and  slender 
tree  erect.  When  a  young  tree  has  run 
up  so  slim  that  the  wind  often  bends  the 
top  half  way  to  the  ground,  the  true  way 
is  to  cut  the  central  stem  off,  say  a  foot 
or  more,  for  the  purpose  of  inducing  the 
tree  to  grow  more  stocky  and  bushy. 
(See  Pruning.)  When  a  hundred  or 
more  of  such  stakes  are  needed,  let  a  log  of  some  durable 
timber  be  sawed  into  stuff,  say  two  inches  square.  Then  let 
the  pieces  be  thoroughly  seasoned  before  they  are  driven  into 
the  ground,  and  let  the  lower  ends  be  well  smeared  with  coal- 
tar.  A  hole  should  be  made  with  a  crowbar,  the  stake  driven 
in  firmly,  the  upper  end  sawed  off  in  a  horizontal  direction, 
and  a  piece  of  board  nailed  to  the  top  of  the  stake.  Each 
board  should  have  a  hole  bored  through  it  near  one  end ; 
and  when  it  is  to  be  put  on,  let  it  be  split  in  two  through 
the  hole,  and  the  pieces  nailed  to  the  top  of  the  stake.   Pieces 


Staking  a  small  tree. 


92  THE  APPLE  GULTUMIST. 

of  canvas  should  be  drawn  into  the  hole,  to  prevent  in  jury- 
to  the  bark  as  the  tree  is  blown  to  and  fro  by  the  wind.  In 
some  instances  young  trees  are  not  rooted  with  sufficient 
firmness  to  prevent  the  stem  from  working  a  large  hole  in 
the  ground  at  the  collar  of  the  tree.  When  the  ground  is 
frozen,  if  such  trees  are  not  held  by  a  stake,  the  bark  is  often 
worn  entirely  through  to  the  wood  by  the  incessant  swaying 
of  the  tree. 

Excavating  with  a  Scraper. — One  of  the  most  satisfactory 
modes  of  excavating  for  fruit-trees  that  we  have  ever  prac- 
tised is  to  stake  out  the  ground,  and  then  plough  a  small  plot, 
say  eight  to  ten  feet  wide  by  fifteen  feet  long,  hitch  the 
team  to  a  good  dirt-scraper  (Fig.  48),  and  scrape  the  loos- 


Fig.  48. 


A  two-horse  cast-iron  scraper. 

ened  earth  each  way  from  the  point  where  the  stake  stood. 
After  all  the  loosened  earth  is  scraped  out,  hitch  again  to 
the  plough.  It  may  be  necessary  to  employ  a  piece  of  log- 
chain  one  or  two  feet  long  between  the  plough-clevis  and 
whiffle-trees,  with  a  man  on  the  beam  if  the  ground  is  very 
compact.  Let  the  wheel  beneath  the  beam  of  the  plough  be 
adjusted  so  that  the  plough  may  enter  only  four  or  five  inches. 
Then  let  one  person  "ride  the  plough-beam"  (see  the  illus- 
tration of  a  man  riding  a  plough-beam,  p.  60),  and  the  team 


REMOVING  AND  TBANSPLANTINO  TREES.  93 

will  be  able  to  draw  the  plough  through  the  heavy  and  solid 
earth.  If  no  gauge-wheel  is  employed,  the  plough  will  ofteii 
plunge  in  so  deep  that  the  team  can  not  pull  it  through. 
Excavations  can  be  made  with  plough  and  scraper  two  feet 
deep  in  a  very  economical  manner,  when  one  has  a  ^ood 
team.  After  the  earth  has  been  removed  to  the  desired 
depth,  let  it  be  returned  with  the  scraper,  until  the  depres- 
sions are  sufficiently  full  to  receive  the  trees.  Then  set  up 
a  stake  where  the  tree  is  to  be  planted,  and  proceed  to  ex- 
cavate for  another  tree. 

We  once  tested  this  mode  of  preparing  holes  for  fruit- 
trees,  and  found  that  a  man  and  boy,  with  a  span  of  horses, 
could  excavate  a  hollow  about  two  feet  deep,  and  return  the 
earth  in  about  one  hour  per  hole.  But  it  paid  well  in  the 
growth  of  the  trees. 

Setting  Trees  on  the  Surface  of  the  Ground.  —  As  has 
previously  been  stated,  there  is  danger  of  planting  trees  too 
deep,  as  many  of  the  roots  strike  downward  into  the  earth, 
as  naturally  as  the  tops  stretch  upward  into  the  air,  when 
there  is  not  some  impenetrable  obstruction  to  hinder  their 
ramification  through  the  soil.  None  except  the  annual  feed- 
ers near  the  surface  of  the  ground  are  found  to  tend  upward, 
as  they  push  out  from  a  main  root,  or  branch  of  a  root.  In 
case  a  tree  is  planted  too  deep,  a  new  system  of  roots  will 
be  thrown  out  from  the  stem,  one  or  two  inches  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  soil.  No  matter  how  deeply  tap-roots 
and  branch-roots  may  be  sent  downward,  it  is  a  habit  of 
fruit-trees  to  produce  a  complete  system  of  roots,  rootlets, 
fibres,  and  feeders  so  near  the  surface  of  the  earth,  that  the 
countless  number  of  minute  mouths  may  imbibe  the  moist- 
ure and  plant-food  soon  after  the  small  particles  begin  to 
descend  from  the  surface. 

A  knowledge  of  these  facts  once  warranted  an  experi- 
ment in  planting  trees  directly  on  the  surface  of  the  ground. 


94  THE  APPLE  CULTUEIST. 

In  the  spring  of  1843,  when  planting  the  first  trees  for  our 
own  orchard,  there  were  a  few  places  where  holes  could 
not  be  dug  with  a  spade,  as  the  earth  for  several  feet  in 
depth  was  composed  of  fragments  of  slate  and  small  boul- 
ders. Neither  could  the  ground  be  ploughed.  A  thick 
and  tough  sod  of  Kentucky  blue-grass  rested  on  the  sur- 
face; but  roots  of  trees  could  spread  among  the  stones 
without  difficulty.  Hence  we  resolved  to  try  the  doubtful 
experiment  of  setting  trees  without  digging  any  holes. 
Stake-holes  were  first  worked  down  through  the  stones 
with  a  crow-bar,  and  stakes  were  driven  in  firmly  to  sup- 
port the  trees.  The  roots  were  then  spread  out  on  the 
grassy  sod  as  a  tree  was  held  near  a  stake,  after  which  a  few 
bushels  of  mellow  soil  were  shovelled  from  a  loaded  wagon 
around  each  tree,  sufficient  to  cover  the  roots  with  about 
two  inches  of  mellow  dirt.  The  body  of  each  tree  was 
then  tied  firmly  to  the  stake ;  and  the  surface  of  the  ground 
round  about  the  trees  was  mulched  with  coarse,  strawy 
barn-yard  manure,  covering  an  area  of  about  eight  feet  in 
diameter.  Pieces  of  boards,  old  rails,  and  brush  were  laid 
on  the  mulch  to  prevent  fowls  from  removing  the  coarse 
material.  Amidst  the  sneers  of  those  who  knew  that  such 
a  mode  of  planting  was  superlatively  ridiculous,  and  could 
never  prove  at  all  satisfactory,  we  waited  in  doubtful  sus- 
pense for  the  result.  The  trees  that  were  set  in  mellow 
ground,  around  which  the  surface  was  kept  clean  and  free 
from  vegetation,  grew  a  few  inches  higher  and  broader, 
while  every  tree  that  was  set  on  the  grassy  surface  threw 
out  branches  of  good  ripe  wood,  laterally  and  vertically, 
from  one  to  four  feet  in  length,  before  winter.  The  first 
season  some  gentlemen  called  to  learn  the  secret  of  such  a 
wonderful  growth,  and  measured  the  new  wood  just  before 
the  leaves  had  fallen,  and  found  many  branches  over  four 
feet  in  length.     After  the  first  season,  the  branches  did  not 


REMOVING  AND  TRANSPLANTING  TREES.  95 

grow  faster  than  those  on  other  trees.  Every  tree  that 
was  planted  on  the  surface  succeeded  in  a  most  satisfac- 
toiy  manner,  and  yielded  as  much  fruit  as  any  others.  In 
1868  we  saw  them  bending  beneath  a  bountiful  burden  of 
fruit.  In  after  years  we  planted  many  trees  on  the  grassy 
surface,  always  with  the  most  satisfactory  results.  On 
stony  fields,  in  rocky  dells,  and  on  lawns,  where  the  ground 
can  not  be  ploughed,  and  where  disturbing  the  sod  is  ob- 
jectionable, there  is  no  more  satisfactory  way  of  planting 
trees  of  any  kind,  or  bushes,  than  to  spread  out  the  roots 
on  the  sod  and  cover  them  with  a  little  mellow  earth ;  then 
mulch  the  surface. 

Effects  of  Planting  too  Deep. — The  roots  of  trees  are 
things  of  life ;  and  they  must  have  the  benefit  of  the  air  as 
well  as  the  growing  branches.  Almost  any  fruit-tree  may 
be  killed  in  one  or  two  seasons — except  when  it  stands  in 
certain  favored  spots — simply  by  filling  earth  around  it, 
say  two  or  more  feet  deep.  Many  a  valuable  tree,  stand- 
ing in  a  low  place,  has  been  killed  in  consequence  of  the 
earth  being  filled  in  around  it  when  grading  the  surface  of 
the  ground. 

We  well  remember  a  large  apple-tree,  now  in  full  bear- 
ing, which  was  taken  up  in  the  winter,  with  a  large  ball  of 
frozen  earth  at  the  roots,  and  placed  in  a  deep  hole  in  the 
orchard.  It  was  probably  set  too  deep ;  because,  for  nearly 
fifteen  years,  that  tree  did  not  flourish  well  nor  produce 
fruit  even  tolerably  fair.  But  as  soon  as  it  sent  out  a  sys- 
tem of  roots  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  it  began  to 
grow  rapidly,  and  to  bear  abundantly,  and  is,  at  the  pres- 
ent writing,  a  flourishing  and  productive  tree. 

The  first  apple-trees  that  we  transplanted  were  set  too 
deep,  as  we  found,  three  years  afterwards,  that  they  were 
sendnig  out  a  system  of  roots  all  around  the  bodies,  near 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  while  about  four  inches  belmo 


96 


THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 


PEOK'S  PLEASANT. 

Synonym.— 'WvMz  Apple.  The  fruit  is  rather  above  medium  size,  roundish,  a 
little  ribbed,  and  in  most  instances  slightly  flattened,  with  an  indistinct  furrow  on 
one  side.  The  skin  is  smooth,  and  green  when  first  gathered,  often  covered  with 
a  little  dark  red.  When  fully  ripe,  the  fruit  is  covered  with  a  beautiful  clear  yel- 
low, having  a  bright  blush  on  the  sunny  side  near  the  stem,  where  the  surface  is 
marked  with  gray  dots.  The  flesh  is  yellowish  and  fine-grained,  juicy,  crisp,  and 
tender,  with  a  delicious,  highly  aromatic,  sprightly  sub-acid  taste ;  quality,  good 
to  best ;  season,  November  to  March.  This  apple  passes  for  an  excellent  apple 
both  for  market  and  for  culinary  purposes. 

these  were  the  main  roots ;  and  as  soon  as  these  new  roots 
had  attained  a  suitable  size  the  trees  began  to  flourish  lux- 
uriantly. 

The  mice  gnawed  one  of  our  apple-trees,  more  than  two- 
thirds  of  the  distance  around  it,  for  two  feet  above  the  sur- 


REMOVING  AND  TRANSPLANTING   TREES.  97 

face  of  the  ground.  We  raised  a  mound  of  mellow  earth 
around  it,  a  few  inches  higher  than  it  had  been  gnawed,  and 
covered  it  with  sods.  The  next  season  the  hens  scratched 
away  some  of  this  earth,  and  we  discovered  that  there  was 
a  system  of  young  roots  from  six  to  ten  inches  long  just 
below  the  surface  of  this  mound.  From  these  considera- 
tions, it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  there  is  great  danger  of 
planting  trees  too  deep,  and  that  the  most  proper  depth  is 
not  more  than  two  or  three  inches  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  We  always  fill  the  holes  for  trees  even-full  with 
the  general  surface  of  the  ground,  before  the  trees  are 
placed  in  their  position;  and  we  have  always  found  that 
they  would  settle  down  in  a  few  months  as  far  as  they 
should  ever  be  set.  If  the  soil  is  well  pulverized  beneath 
the  roots,  they  will  soon  occupy  the  whole  space  below,  and 
will  take  a  firmer  hold  of  the  earth  than  if  they  were  placed 
as  deep  in  the  mellow-bed  as  they  stood  in  the  nursery. 
Allowance  must  be  made  for  settling,  when  the  soil  is  very 
wet. 

Transplanting  in  Autumn,  or  in  the  Spring. — The  ques- 
tion is,  which  season  is  the  better  one  ?  In  some  instances 
autumn  is  preferable,  and  in  others  spring  offers  advantages. 
If  the  condition  of  soil  and  trees  are  the  same,  we  have 
never  been  able  to  perceive  any  difference.  Still  both  pe- 
riods have  their  advocates;  and  there  are  about  as  many 
arguments  in  favor  of  one  season  as  the  other.  If  the  work 
be  well  performed  in  the  spring,  just  before  the  buds  begin 
to  swell,  trees  can  not  be  transplanted  in  a  more  favorable 
period  than  that.  When  apple-trees  are  set  out  in  spring, 
they  come  fresh  and  vigorous  from  the  ground,  from  which 
they  are  withdrawn  easily,  the  soil  having  been  mellowed  by 
the  winter  frost.  As  soon  as  out,  they  are  ready  to  recover 
by  immediate  growth  from  the  effects  of  removal ;  the  buds 
swell  and  expand  into  fresh  leaves,  and  new  shoots  rapidly 

5 


98  THE  APPLE  CULTVRIST. 

spring  upward.  More  than  this,  if  trees  are  taken  up  in  the 
spring,  before  the  buds  expand,  and  are  transplanted  at 
once,  the  mutilated  roots  will  heal  and  send  out  new  root- 
lets sooner  than  if  they  had  been  planted  in  autumn.  Our 
long  experience  is  decidedly  in  favor  of  spring  planting  for 
every  thing  that  must  be  transplanted.  But  a  far  better 
way  is  to  plant  the  seed  where  trees  are  to  grow,  and  thus 
avoid  transplanting.  When  trees  are  planted  in  autumn 
the  roots  take  no  hold  of  the  ground  until  the  next  spring. 
Hence  a  crowning  and  unanswerable  argument  in  favor  of 
planting  in  the  spring  of  the  year  is,  that  it  is  far  better  for 
trees  or  vines  of  any  kind  to  have  a  vital  connection  with 
the  soil  during  the  drying  and  cold  weather,  than  for  all 
vital  connection  to  be  severed  for  from  four  to  six  months. 
This  fact  alone  is  sufficient  to  show  that  spring  j^lanting  is 
preferable  to  autumn.  But  if  trees  can  not  be  properly 
managed  in  the  spring,  and  if  they  can  not  be  planted  till 
late  in  the  growing  season,  it  is  better  to  plant  in  autumn. 
We  have  observed  that  during  several  years  past  many 
Western  and  North-western  farmers  have  reported  the  loss 
of  thousands  of  apple-trees,  all  in  consequence  of  being 
planted  in  the  spring. 

Double  -  planting  Orchards. — The  practice  with  some  po- 
rn ologists,  when  they  first  commenced  planting  apple-or- 
chards, was  to  set  a  row  of  peach-trees  alternately  between 
the  apple,  in  two  directions,  by  which  they  were  enabled  to 
plant  out  twice  the  number  of  peach-trees  on  a  given  area 
as  there  were  apple-trees.  Then,  by  the  time  the  apple- 
trees  had  attained  sufficient  size  to  require  the  space  occu- 
pied by  the  peach-trees,  most  of  the  peach-trees  would  have 
reached  the  limit  of  their  existence,  so  that  they  could  be 
removed.     The  results  were  eminently  satisfactory. 

The  question  is  frequently  asked,  at  the  present  day, 
whether  dwarf  and  standard  pears,  peaches,  plums,  or  other 


REMOVING  AND  TRANSPLANTING  TREES.  99 

fruits  could  be  planted  in  the  intervals  of  the  apple-trees 
without  injury  to  the  latter?  In  most  instances,  with  fair 
cultivation,  on  a  fertile  soil,  apple-trees,  thirty-three  feet  dis- 
tant, will  in  the  course  of  some  sixteen  to  twenty  years  near- 
ly cover  the  whole  ground,  and  will  be  injured,  more  or  less, 
in  their  thrif tiness  and  productiveness,  by  other  trees  grow- 
ing between.  But,  as  the  trees  are  many  years  reaching 
that  size,  and  remain  quite  small  for  a  time,  reliable  pomol- 
ogists  are  inclined  to  favor  this  practice,  where  it  is  desired 
to  make  the  most  of  the  land  for  fruit-trees,  provided  a  con- 
tinued and  enriching  system  of  cultivation  is  adopted,  by 
applying  manure,  turning  under  clover,  and  an  occasional 
broadcast  dressing  of  lime  or  ashes.  J.  J.  Thomas  says, 
touching  this  subject,  that  the  roots  of  the  peach,  as  we 
have  found  by  decisive  experiments,  extend  quite  as  far  as 
the  height  of  the  tree ;  and  therefore  they  soon  form  a  net- 
work of  roots  over  a  circle  whose  diameter  is  twice  as  great 
as  the  height  of  the  tree.  Apples  do  nearly  the  same ;  and 
consequently,  in  a  few  years  after  setting  out  the  orchard, 
the  whole  surface  of  the  ground  is  covered  with  the  roots 
of  each,  a  few  inches  beneath  the  surface.  The  peach-trees 
will,  therefore,  soon  interfere  with  those  of  the  apple,  and 
necessarily  retard  them.  The  apple-trees,  after  the  lapse 
of  a  few  years,  will  be  lessened  in  growth  by  the  peach- 
trees.  But  the  latter  probably  will  have  paid  for  this  dam- 
age by  their  crops  of  peaches ;  and  generous  manuring  may 
nearly  compensate  for  the  loss.  At  all  events,  we  have 
known  the  practice  to  succeed  well  on  good  soils;  but,  as 
the  apple-trees  advance,  it  would  be  best  to  keep  the  peach- 
trees  well  shortened  back. 

Dwarf  pears  will  prove  of  no  injury  whatever  to  young 
apple-orchards ;  for  the  dwarfs  must  have,  of  necessity,  good 
cultivation  and  manuring,  which  will  ultimately  benefit  the 
apples.     The  roots  of  the  dwarfs  are  short,  and  never  ex- 


100  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

tend  very  far;  and  consequently  will  not  soon  interfere 
with  the  apple  roots.  They  will,  however,  suffer  serious 
loss  from  the  overshadowing  influence  of  the  apple-trees  as 
the  latter  reach  the  age  of  sixteen  or  twenty  years ;  and  the 
dwarfs  must  not  be  expected  to  succeed  after  that.  If  in 
ground  by  themselves,  the  few  pears  that  succeed  best  as 
dwarfs  may  be  expected  to  flourish,  with  proper  manage- 
ment, at  least  fifty  years.  We  would  not  in  any  case  recom- 
mend standard  pears  or  plums  among  apples. 

Planting  an  Orchard  on  New  Land. — In  many  instances 
it  is  desirable  to  plant  an  orchard  as  soon  as  the  forest  is 
removed,  before  the  land  has  been  stumped  and  ploughed. 
If  the  soil  does  not  require  under-draining,  it  will  be  an 
excellent  practice  to  put  out  the  trees  or  plant  the  seed  as 
soon  as  the  brush  and  other  rubbish  can  be  disposed  of. 
We  have  sometimes  seen  fruit-trees  planted  a  few  feet 
from  a  brush-heap  or  a  pile  of  stumps,  which  have  been 
killed  by  the  heat  'when  such  rubbish  was  burned.  Occa- 
sionally the  place  for  a  fruit-tree  will  be  found  where  a 
stump  is  standing.  Let  such  stumps  be  taken  out  at  once, 
and  thus  provide  an  excellent  hole  for  setting  a  tree. 

There  is  often  a  wonderful  advantage  in  planting  an  or- 
chard on  new  land  when  the  ground  is  full  of  roots.  By 
the  time  the  roots  of  fruit-trees  have  got  a  good  start,  the 
roots  of  the  forest-trees  will  begin  to  decay.  Then  the 
roots  of  fruit-trees  will  spread  rapidly  in  the  places  of  the 
old  roots,  the  decayed  material  of  which  will  promote  a 
much  more  rapid  gi'owth  of  the  fruit-trees  than  if  they  had 
been  planted  on  old  ground.  This  fact  will  explain,  in  a 
good  degree,  why  fruit-trees  flourish  more  satisfactorily  in 
a  new  country  and  on  land  just  cleared,  than  on  old  ground 
of  the  same  quality. 

Cutting  off  the  Tap-root.  —  Read  about  the  Habit  of 
Trees,  in   Glossary.     The  recommendation  to  cut  off  the 


liEMOVJNG  AND  TliANSPLANTlNG  TREES.  101 

tap-root  of  every  tree  when  it  is  to  be  transplanted,  once 
became  so  imperative,  that  some  pomological  writers  even 
went  so  far  as  to  recommend  placing  a  broad  flat  stone 
beneath  every  tree,  so  that  it  could  not  reproduce  another 
tap-root.  Most  writers  at  the  present  day,  and  most  nur- 
serymen, will  say :  "  By  all  means  prune  of£  the  tap-root 
close  to  the  stem."  But  such  a  practice  is  a  serious  delu- 
sion. Nature  indicates,  as  has  been  already  stated,  that 
most  trees,  shrubs,  and  plants  will  flourish  most  satisfac- 
torily, endure  longer,  and  be  every  way  better  when  they 
send  a  strong  tap-root  deep  into  the  ground.  And  this 
fact  is  more  particularly  true  when  the  subsoil  is  so  porous 
that  a  long  tap-root  will  readily  strike  downward  as  far  as 
the  stem  grows  upward.  Were  it  not  a  habit  of  the  tree 
or  plant  to  send  down  such  a  tap-root,  it  would  be  advisa- 
ble to  cut  it  off.  But  many  nurserymen  will  persist  in  cut- 
ting this  root  off  at  all  hazards ;  because,  they  say,  ten  roots 
will  push  out  at  the  end  of  the  stump  where  the  tap-root 
was  severed,  which  will  be  more  serviceable  to  the  growth 
of  the  tree.  The  office  of  the  tap-root  is  to  supply  the 
growing  plant  or  tree  with  moisture  in  hot  and  dry  weath- 
er, when  the  surface-roots  can  not  absorb  one  drop  from 
the  soil.  Cut  off  the  bruised  end,  and  encourage  a  tap-root 
to  grow  on  every  tree  and  bush.     (See  p.  90,  Fig.  46.) 

Lateral  Extension  of  the  Roots  of  full-grown  Apple-trees. 
— If  we  could  lift  a  large  apple-tree  with  all  its  roots  un- 
broken from  the  earth,  probably,  to  our  great  surprise,  we 
should  see  roots  on  every  side  reaching  farther  away,  with 
a  thousan4  open  mouths,  than  the  entire  extent  of  the  long- 
est branches.  TuU  found  that  common  turnip-roots  ex- 
tended at  least  three  or  four  feet  from  the  plant ;  and  there 
is  no  doubt  that  many  weeds  throw  out  their  fibres  quite 
as  far.  A.  J.  Downing,  in  his  directions  for  the  manage- 
ment and  manuring  of  trees,  indicated  that  the  roots  of 


102  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

a  tree  were  contained  within  a  circle  no  larger  than  the 
spread  of  the  branches.  J.  J.  Thomas  says  that  the  roots 
of  common  grass  are  found  to  run  two  feet,  and  sometimes 
much  more.  If,  then,  the  tree-roots  are  but  two  and  a  half 
feet  long,  making  the  circle  five  feet,  they  would  meet  and 
come  in  contact  with  grass-roots  two  feet  farther  off,  or 
four  and  a  half  feet  from  the  tree,  requiring  a  circle  of  nine 
feet  at  least  to  prevent  the  exhausting  influence  of  the 
grass.  When  the  tree  is  two  or  three  years  older,  this  cir- 
cle would  need  to  be  doubled  in  size.  In  other  words,  the 
whole  system  of  digging  small  spaces,  and  mulching  small 
circles  about  young  trees,  possesses  very  little  utility  when 
compared  with  broadcast  cultivation — the  only  mode  that 
should  be  adopted  in  orchards  and  gardens.  A  tree,  there- 
fore, ten  feet  high,  whose  branches  cover  an  area  five  feet 
in  diameter,  reaches  with  its  roots  the  circumference  of  a 
circle  at  least  twenty  feet  in  diameter.  The  area  of  the 
twenty-feet  circle  is  sixteen  times  greater  than  that  of  the 
five- feet  circle.  Thus  Downing,  in  his  directions,  omitted 
at  least  fifteen-sixteenths  of  the  space  covered  by  the  roots. 
There  are  many  cultivators  who  do  not  keep  the  whole  sur- 
face mellow,  that  loosen  a  circle  of  soil  one-half  as  large  as 
Downing  directed.  Nothing  is  more  common  than  to  see 
trees  ten  or  fifteen  feet  high  with  a  pile  of  manure  a  foot 
or  two  in  diameter  at  the  base  of  the  trunk.  The  tree  can 
not,  as  a  matter  of  course,  derive  any  more  benefit  from 
such  an  enriching  than  a  starving  man  could  be  fed  by 
stufling  crackers  into  his  boots,  with  his  hands  tied  behind 
him.  If  there  is  any  one  thing  of  great  importance  to  fruit- 
raisers,  and  which  they  are  especially  deficient  in  appreci- 
ating, it  is  a  knowledge  of  the  wide  extension  of  the  roots 
of  trees.  A  greater  number  of  essential  operations  in  their 
culture  is  founded  on  this  knowledge,  than  on  every  thing 
else  connected  with  vegetable  physiology.     Many  cultiva- 


KEMOVINQ  AND  TMANSPLANTINQ  TMEES,  103 

tors  know  that  trees  throw  out  their  roots  to  long  dis- 
tances ;  but  with  this  knowledge  merely  they  seem  entirely 
satisfied.  They  only  assent  to  it,  and  let  it  pass.  They 
seem  to  have  no  practical  appreciation  of  it.  Their  expe- 
rience in  cultivation  seems  to  have  no  connection  with  such 
knowledge ;  and  we  should  naturally  suppose,  from  their 
actions,  that  they  thought  trees  ten  feet  high  had  roots 
only  fifteen  inches,  instead  of  fifteen  feet  long.  It  may  be 
laid  down,  as  a  general  rule,  that  the  roots  extend  in  each 
direction  from  the  foot  of  the  tree  as  far  as  its  whole 
height,  and  in  many  instances  much  farther.  We  see 
proofs  of  this  fact  where  such  trees  as  the  locust  and  sil- 
ver poplar  throw  up  suckers  at  great  distances  from  the 
trunk.  The  nurseryman  who  passes  between  his  rows  of 
salable  trees  is  not  often  aware  that  the  whole  surface  of 
the  ground  beneath  his  feet  is  covered  with  a  net-work  of 
roots,  often  extending  the  breadth  of  two  or  three  rows. 
When  he  digs  the  trees  by  placing  the  spade  a  foot  from 
the  stem,  he  does  not  know  that  he  cuts  off  and  leaves  nine- 
tenths  of  the  fibres  in  the  ground.  The  planter  who  sets 
them,  out  supposes  tliat  for  several  years  the  roots  only  oc- 
cupy a  small  circle,  which  he  may  spade  and  enrich,  and 
thus  afford  them-  all  the  cultivation  that  is  necessary.  The 
roots  of  growing  apple-trees  require  quite  as  much  lateral 
space  as  the  longest  branches.  It  is  too  common  an  error 
to  suppose  that  if  the  branches  of  trees  have  light  and  air 
enough,  nothing  further  need  be  provided.  But  the  facts 
already  stated  show  that  the  tops  may  be  far  from  meet- 
ing, and  yet  the  roots  may  long  since  have  become  inter- 
laced.    Witness  the  extent  of  roots,  p.  90,  Fig.  46. 

All  intelligent  pomologists  and  tillers  of  the  soil,  as  far 
back  in  ages  past  as  we  have  any  account,  have  appeared 
to  understand  the  importance  of  preparing  the  soil  for  all 
kinds  of  trees  in  such  a  manner  that  some  of  the  roots  will 


104  THE  APPLE   CULTURIBT. 

Strike  downward  as  far  as  the  toj)  extends  upward.  Hence 
Virgil,  who  wrote  nearly  two  thousand  years  ago,  when  al- 
luding to  this  subject,  says  : 

"High  as  his  topmost  boughs  to  heaven  extend, 
So  low  his  roots  to  hell's  dominion  tend." 

Removing  large  Trees. — It  is  desirable  many  times  to  re- 
move trees  which  are  twenty  feet  or  more  high,  the  bodies 
of  which  are  four  to  six  inches  in  diameter.  Winter  is  the 
time  to  do  this  work.  Some  kinds  of  deciduous  trees,  like 
the  maple  and  elm,  which  are  not  so  dependent  on  a  tap-root 
as  many  other  kinds  of  trees,  may  be  removed  with  more 
assurance  of  success  than  many  of  the  nut^bearing  or  cone- 
bearing  trees,  which  will  not,  in  some  instances,  flourish  at 
all  satisfactorily  after  the  tap-root  has  been  disturbed.  As 
maple -trees  do  not  strike  their  roots  so  deep  as  many  other 
trees,  large  maples  may  be  removed  in  cold  weather  with 
less  difficulty  than  almost  any  other  kind  of  growing  trees. 

The  correct  way  to  take  up  a  large  tree  is  to  remove  the 
leaves  and  loose  mould  on  the  surface  around  the  tree,  and 
dig  a  channel  about  six  or  eight  inches  deep  around  the  body, 
about  three  or  four  feet  from  the  centre  of  the  tree.  Then 
fill  this  channel  with  leaves,  and  press  them  down  close,  to 
exclude  the  frost  from  a  small  portion  of  the  earth  between 
the  ball  that  is  to  be  removed  with  the  tree  and  the  remain- 
ing banks.  This  channel  must  be  cut  before  the  ground 
freezes.  Then,  after  the  ground  has  frozen  six  or  eight 
inches  in  depth,  take  up  the  trees,  set  them  on  a  sleigh,  or 
stone-boat,  haul  them  where  they  are  to  be  planted,  and 
drop  each  tree  in  a  hole  previously  prepared.  Many  trees, 
when  removed  in  this  manner,  will  continue  to  grow  as  lux- 
uriantly as  if  they  had  never  been  taken  up.  A  great  many 
new  houses,  having  no  shade-trees  near  them,  can  be  pro- 
vided with  large  trees  at  a  small  expense,  if  suitable  trees 
can  be  obtained  within  a  distance  of  two  miles. 


REMOVINO  AND  TRANSPLANTING  TREEH. 


105 


Fig.  49. 


By  boring  an  inch  hole  througli  the  body  of  the  tree,  to 
receive  a  large  clevis-bolt,  we  have  lifted  trees  alone,  with 
a  system  of  gin-poles  and  tackle-blocks,  which  would  weigh 
— the  ball  of  earth  and  the  tree — more  than  one  ton.  The 
hole  in  the  tree  should  be  filled  with  grafting-wax,  to  jire- 
vent  decay,  after  the  tree  has  been  planted  in  its  desired 
locality.  By  having  a  windlass  for  winding  up  the  slack 
rope  of  a  set  of  tackles,  one  man  can  lift. any  tree  that  it 
would  be  safe  to  take  up.  Some  care  should  be  exercised 
that  the  ball  is  not  planted  deeper  than  the  tree  grew.  As 
soon  as  a  tree  is  dropped  in  its  place  every  hole  should  be 
filled  with  earth ; 
and  it  would  be 
well  to  spread  a 
few  inches  in 
depth  of  straw 
over  the  roots, 
to  protect  them 
from  injury  dur- 
ing very  cold 
weather. 

The  accompa- 
nying engraving 
(Fig.  49)  repre- 
sents the   appara-  Apparatus  for  removing  large  trees. 

tus  which  we  employed  in  removing  large  trees.  It  con- 
sists of  a  set  of  shears  about  sixteen  feet  long,  with  a  wind- 
lass attached  to  the  single  shear,  around  which  the  slack 
rope  of  the  tackles  is  wound  when  the  machine  is  worked. 
A  good  stiff  pole  or  stick  of  timber,  twelve  or  fourteen 
feet  long,  is  fastened  to  the  tree  with  a  large  clevis  and 
chain,  by  boring  a  hole  through  the  tree  for  the  bolt  of  the 
clevis,  as  near  to  the  ground  as  can  be.  It  will  be  difiicult 
to  hitch  a  chain  around  the  body  of  a  tree  without  wound- 

5* 


106  THE  APPLE  GULTURIST. 

ing  the  bark.  One  end  of  the  pole  is  supported  by  a  strong 
bench  three  feet  high,  standing  on  planks  to  prevent  its 
sinking  into  the  ground.  With  the  tackles  hitched  to  the 
other  end  of  the  pole,  the  tree  is  lifted  high  enough  to  allow 
a  sleigh,  or  stone-boat,  to  be  backed  under  it,  to  receive  the 
tree  with  the  ball  of  earth. 

When  trees  were  to  be  removed,  our  practice  was  to  dig 
a  trench  about  them,  about  eight  or  ten  inches  deep,  or 
more,  according  to  the  size  of  the  tree  and  extent  of  the 
roots.  This  was  done  one  year  before  the  trees  were  re- 
moved, so  that  the  roots  in  the  ball  of  earth  might  send  out 
a  large  number  of  minute  fibres,  which  would  not  be  there 
if  the  trees  were  removed  as  soon  as  the  roots  were  severed 
by  cutting  the  trench. 

The  next  thing  of  first  importance  is,  to  have  the  holes 
dug  before  a  tree  is  brought  to  the  ground.  Even  if  they 
are  filled  with  snow,  it  can  readily  be  removed  when  trees 
are  ready  to  be  placed  in  them.  Holes  should  always  be 
dug  sufficiently  large  to  receive  the  ball  of  earth  without 
resting  on  the  edges ;  and  care  should  be  exercised  to  have 
the  trees  no  deeper  in  the  soil  than  they  naturally  grew. 
Trees  of  considerable  height  should  be  stayed  uj)  with  four 
guy-wires,  to  prevent  the  winds  fi-om  blowing  them  over. 
These  guy  wires  should  be  fastened  to  the  tree  with  small 
staples  driven  into  the  tree,  and  to  stakes  driven  into  the 
ground.  When  trees  are  small,  we  may  dispense  with  the 
pole  and  bench,  and  hitch  the  tackle  directly  to  the  tree; 
and  in  unloading  trees,  we  seldom  used  the  pole  and  bench. 

We  once  removed  several  evergreens  from  the  forest, 
from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  in  height,  and  four  to  six  inches 
in  diameter;  and  those  which  were  unloaded  directly  into 
holes  already  prepared  are  now  alive;  while  all  of  those 
which  were  unloaded  on  the  north  side  of  the  house,  and 
the  roots  covered  with  moss  and  straw  until  the  ground 


BEMOVINO  AND  TRANSPLANTING  TREES. 


107 


POUND    KOY 


S'T/nonym.— Winter-pound  Royal.  The  fruit  is  large,  roundish-oblong-conical, 
with  a  surface  slightly  uneven  ;  color,  pale,  yellowish-white,  occasionally  with  a 
I'aint  blush,  and,  when  ripe,  marked  with  a  few  large,  ruddy,  and  dark  specks ;  the 
flesh  is  very  tender,  breaking,  fine-grained,  with  a  mild,  agreeable,  aromatic,  sub- 
acid taste ;  season,  December  to  April.  The  tree  has  a  broad  spreading  top,  and 
requires  the  best  of  cultivation  to  insure  good  crops  of  fruit. 

thawed — as  we  had  seen  recommended  in  some  agricultu- 
ral papers — died  the  same  season.  When  the  machine  is 
hitched  to  a  tree,  and  we  have  lifted  on  it  almost  enough  to 
start  it,  take  a  lever  or  crowbar,  and  loosen  the  ball  of  earth 
a  little  all  around  the  trench.  This  precaution  will  some- 
times prevent  the  ball  of  earth  from  breaking,  and  the  break- 
ing of  some  part  of  the  machine  also.  With  such  a  ma- 
chine, we  have  often  gone  two  miles  from  home,  and  re- 


108  THE  APPLE  (JULTURIIST. 

turned  with  a  large  tree  and  ball  of  earth  six  or  seven  feet 
in  diameter  and  eight  inches  in  thickness,  loading  and  un- 
loading entirely  alone ^  in  two  hours  and  a  half.  We  men- 
tion this  fact  to  show  the  efficiency  of  the  machine,  and 
that  it  may  be  handled  and  worked  advantageously  by  one 
man  who  knows  how  to  handle  such  an  apparatus. 

Instances  are  of  common  occurrence  where  it  is  desirable 
to  remove  valuable  fruit-trees  in  the  summer  or  late  in  the 
spring,  when  we  can  not  avail  ourselves  of  a  frozen  ball  of 
earth.  When  the  writer  was  about  seventeen  years  of  age, 
a  valuable  pear-tree  was  to  be  removed,  in  order  to  make 
room  for  the  wood-house.  It  was  so  old  and  large,  that 
every  one  thought  it  absurd  to  attempt  to  transplant  it 
with  any  expectation  of  its  living.  We  had  eaten  too  many 
delicious  pears  from  that  tree  to  see  it  cut  down,  which  was 
the  orders ;  but,  in  laudable  obstinacy,  we  took  it  up  in  the 
middle  of  June  and  transplanted  it,  and  it  bore  pears  the 
same  year,  and  is  a  valuable  bearer  even  at  the  present 
writing. 

We  have  seen  a  great  many  valuable  fruit-trees  cut  down 
which  might  have  been  taken  up  and  transplanted  with  very 
little  injury  to  their  productiveness.  When  a  few  tall  shade- 
trees  are  wanted  at  once,  such  an  apparatus  will  be  found 
of  great  convenience  in  taking  them  up. 

Removing  large  Trees  without  Tackles. — A  farmer  in 
Western  New  York  recently  came  in  possession  of  a  large 
young  orchard,  the  trees  of  which  were  standing  in  the 
quincunx  order,  and  were  about  as  thick  again  as  they 
should  stand.  He  removed  every  other  row — over  four 
hundred  trees,  from' seven  to  ten  years'  standing.  He  wrote 
that  the  expense  of  removal  was  about  forty  cents  each. 
He  employed  long  levers  and  a  broad  stone-boat,  and  three 
men  to  load  and  unload  the  trees.  According  to  his  own 
account,  the  labor  was  performed  in  a  very  rough  and  un- 


REMOVING  AND  Tit ANSPL ANTING  TMEEIS. 


109 


Fig.  50, 


skillful  manner ;  and  yet  only  eight  trees  in  every  one  hun- 
dred failed  to  grow  the  next  season.  If  such  an  apparatus 
as  Figure  50  had  been  employed,  and  if  a  circle  had  been 
cut  around  every  tree  the  previous  spring,  the  cost  of  trans- 
planting would  have  been  much  less  per  tree ;  and  not  one 
tree  would  have  died. 

A  Tree  Machine  on  Wheels. — If  a  person  were  to  have 
twenty  or  thirty  trees  to 
remove,  the  expense  of 
making  a  frame,  to  be 
placed  on  the  wheels  of 
a  common  wagon,  would 
cost  but  a  few  dollars. 
Two  pieces  of  scantling, 
say  three  by  six  inches 
square,  for  sills,  could  be 
placed,  edge  up,  on  the 
bolsters  of  a  wagon;  then 
two  windlasses  should  be 
fitted  to  the  upper  side  of 
the  sills,  as  shown  by  Fig. 
50,  around  which  chains 
may  wind.  The  windlass- 
es should  be  made  of 
some  hard  and  tough  tim- 
ber, about  six  inches  in  di- 
ameter, with  two  one  and 
a  half  inch  holes  bored  at  right  angles  through  each  wind- 
lass. When  a  tree  is  to  be  lifted,  remove  the  windlasses 
and  one  sill  from  the  wagon,  and  place  the  vehicle  in  posi- 
tion with  the  reach  or  coupling  of  the  wagon  close  to  the 
body  of  the  tree.  Then  lay  the  sill  and  windlasses  in  their 
places,  and  lift  the  tree  clear  from  the  ground,  and  drive 
carefully  to  the  place  for  transplanting.     An  inch  auger- 


Removiiig  tiees  with  a  frozen  ball  of  earth. 


1 1 0  THJi]  AlU'LE  CUL T  URIST. 

hole  bored  through  the  body  of  a  tree,  to  receive  the  bolt 
of  the  clevis,  will  not  injure  the  tree  in  the  least,  if  the  hole 
is  afterwards  filled  with  grafting-wax.  We  have  bored  a 
hole  through  many  trees  five  or  more  inches  in  diameter, 
when  about  to  remove  them,  and  we  have  never  known  one 
to  be  injured  by  the  hole. 

Transplanting  as  Trees  grew.  —  It  has  been  asserted, 
times  without  number,  that  trees  should  always  be  marked 
before  they  are  taken  up,  so  that  they  can  be  transplanted 
just  as  they  grew  originally,  with  respect  to  the  points  of 
the  compass.  Some  philosophers,  within  a  few  years  past, 
have  stated  as  a  fact  that  there  is  an  unknown  influence 
operating  on  fruit-trees,  which  induces  the  tops  to  incline 
towards  the  south  east.  We  have  been  told,  also,  that  peo- 
ple should  always  sleep  with  their  heads  due  north.  All 
these  things  may  be  of  importance.  But  we  do  not  repose 
any  confidence  in  one  of  the  suggestions ;  and  it  is  extreme- 
ly doubtful  whether  any  one  actually  does  know  any  thing 
positively  with  regard  to  th^Q  facts  in  the  case.  Many  trees 
have  been  turned  half  way  around  when  they  were  trans- 
planted, and  they  produced  bountiful  crops.  But  no  person 
has  ever  been  able  to  afiirra  that  he  knows  that  some  or  all 
of  those  trees  would  have  been  more  productive  if  they  had 
been  transplanted  exactly  as  they  originally  stood. 


PMUNING  AND  TMAININO.  Ill 


CHAPTER  V. 

PRUNING  AND  TRAINING. 

Cautious  the  pruner  pinches  from  the  second  stalk 

A  tiny  pimple  that  portends  a  future  sprout. 

None  but  his  steel  may  touch  the  twigs  doomed  to  the  knife. 

The  limbs  at  measured  distances,  that  air  and  sun 

Admitted  freely,  may  afford  their  genial  aid, 

To  ventilate,  and  warm,  and  swell  the  fruit  and  buds. 

Cowpeb's  Task. 

The  Philosophy  of  Pruning. — PruniDg  and  training  fruit- 
trees  correctly  is  the  most  difficult  of  all  the  operations 
connected  with  the  propagation  of  trees  and  the  manage- 
ment of  orchards,  as  no  set  of  rules  or  recipes  can  be  given 
for  the  pruning  of  fruit-trees  which  will  enable  a  person 
unacquainted  with  the  principles  of  vegetable  growth  to 
become  a  successful  practitioner.  A  tree  is  not  simply  an 
individual  organism  or  unit,  like  a  man  or  a  horse — it  is  a 
"  Mutual  Benefit  Society,"  composed  of  a  number  of  indi- 
viduals, amounting  sometimes  to  many  millions,  each  one 
being  capable,  under  favorable  circumstances,  of  maintain- 
ing its  own  existence,  not  only  when  in  connection  with, 
but  when  separated  from,  the  community  in  which  it  was 
produced;  or  it  may  easily  be  transferred  to  another  soci- 
ety, and  will  there  grow  and  reproduce  its  kind  with  undi- 
minished vigor.  Hence,  for  any  one  to  tell  on  paper  when 
is  the  proper  time  to  prune  a  tree  or  not  to  prune  it,  under 
all  circumstances,  would  be  a  task  which  has  never  as  yet 
been  done,  and  which  we  do  not  expect  to  perform  in  this 
place.  But  it  is  not  difficult  to  state  what  effects  usually 
follow  pruning  at  a  given  period  when  different  parts  of 
a  tree  or  plant  are  pruned.     The  cultivator  should  have  a 


112  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

perfect  understanding  of  what  he  desires  to  accomplish  by 
pruning.  Before  he  severs  a  single  bud,  he  should  under- 
stand the  laws  of  vegetable  physiology,  so  far  as  they  affect 
the  flow  of  sap.  There  is  no  chance  for  correcting  bad 
mistakes  in  pruning.  If  one  pinches  off  a  bud  that  should 
remain^  it  will  be  ruinous  to  the  form  of  the  tree  or  bush. 
The  practice,  with  a  great  many  persons  who  have  had  the 
management  of  orchards,  has  long  been,  and  even  now  is, 
to  allow  the  trees  to  grow  at  random  for  several  years,  and 
then  walk  into  the  tops  with  axe  and  saw,  removing  half 
the  branches.  There  was  never  a  more  ruinous  practice  to 
any  kind  of  trees;  and  there  was  never  a  more  egregious 
error  promulgated,  than  to  allow  a  bush  or  tree  to  grow  at 
pleasure  for  a  few  years,  and  then  give  it  a  thorough  and 
severe  pruning.  The  ruinous  consequences  of  such  prun- 
ing are  manifest,  wherever  large  apple-trees  are  found,  in 
the  decaying  trunks  at  those  points  where  large  branches 
were  cut  off;  and  because  the  wounds  were  so  large,  Na- 
ture could  not  heal  them. 
Pruning  Trees  of  any  Kind  is  a  Science.— 

The  novice  at  pruning,  like  urchins  at  school, 

With  long  observation  must  study  each  rule: 

Why  prune  in  the  summer  ?    Why  prune  in  the  fall  ? 

Or  why  in  the  winter?    Or  why  prune  at  all?— Edwaeds. 

When  a  surgeon  is  about  to  amputate  a  man's  limb,  he 
can  assign  a  satisfactory  reason  for  the  operation.  So 
when  a  pomologist  is  about  to  prune  off  certain  branches, 
he  should  first  ask,  What  do  I  propose  to  accomplish  by 
removing  this  part  of  the  tree  ?  Sometimes,  when  he  thinks 
that  the  removal  of  a  branch  will  improve  the  general  shape 
of  the  tree,  let  him  bend  the  branch  a  little  out  of  its  nat- 
ural place,  so  as  to  show  how  the  tree  would  look  if  this 
limb  were  cut  off;  and  if  the  result  is  not  satisfactory, 
don't  cut  it.  There  is  a  tendency  to  trim  too  much.  Be- 
ware of  this  overdoing  the  matter.    There  was  a  time  when 


PRUNING  AND   TRAINING.  113 

excessive  pruning  was  very  fashionable  even  among  pro- 
fessional orchardists ;  but  they  have  learned  better.  The 
current  of  opinion  is  setting  so  strongly  the  other  way 
now,  that  some  are  advocating  no  pruning  at  all.  Proba- 
bly this  will  be  found  as  much  the  other  extreme ;  and  in 
due  time  we  may  expect  the  true  mode  to  be  settled  upon. 

When  we  make  a  peculiar  motion  with  an  ox-whip,  well- 
trained  oxen  understand  the  movement,  if  not  a  word  is  ut- 
tered. The  motion  means  something.  When  a  horse  feels 
the  whip,  the  blow  of  a  good  driver  has  a  peculiar  signifi- 
cation. A  blow  from  an  axe,  a  cut  with  the  pruning-saw, 
a  slash  with  the  pruning-knife,  and  a  pinch  with  the  thumb- 
nail, all  have  a  peculiar  signification  as  affecting  the  growth 
of  the  tree  and  the  development  of  branches.  The  growth 
and  development  of  an  apple-tree  are  so  completely  under 
the  control  of  law,  that  a  skillful  pruner  can  make  the 
branches  assume  almost  any  desired  form.  If  he  pinches 
or  cuts  wrong,  the  branches  will  grow  wrong.  If  the 
pruning  and  pinching  are  performed  in  accordance  with 
the  law  which  controls  the  flow  and  circulation  of  the  sap, 
every  branch  and  twig  will  spread  out,  or  stretch  upward, 
just  as  the  flow  of  the  sap  has  been  directed  in  a  lateral 
direction,  or  vertically.  Those  persons  who  understand  the 
philosophy  of  pruning,  know  that  by  pinching  off  the  ter- 
minal bud,  the  upward,  rampant  growth  will  be  checked, 
and  the  shoot  will  begin  to  enlarge  in  thickness  and  to  in- 
crease in  strength,  and  to  send  out  lateral  branches  where 
nothing  but  buds  existed.  The  true  reason  for  this  phe- 
nomenon is,  the  sap,  which  was  before  strongly  attracted  to 
the  leading  stem,  is  now  distributed  more  equally  among 
the  other  branches. 

If  we  wish  to  make  a  tree  or  shrub  "  grow  low,"  and 
extend  its  lateral  branches  in  every  direction  as  much  as 
possible,  we  pinch  off  the  tip  ends  of  the  leading,  vertical 


114  THE  APPLE  VULTURIST. 

stem,  aud  thus  induce  the  sap  to  flow  more  abundantly  in 
the  lateral  branches.  Young  grafts,  or  inoculates,  often 
shoot  up  two  or  three  feet,  if  allowed  to  grow  long,  slen- 
der, and  fragile ;  and  such  are  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  the 
first  strong  wind,  unless  they  are  supported  by  a  stake.  If 
it  is  our  aim  to  make  a  tall  tree  by  promoting  the  growth 
upward,  we  have  only  to  cut  off  the  lateral  branches  all 
round  this  leader,  and  thus  induce  as  much  of  the  sap  to 
feed  the  leading  sprout  as  is  possible.  But  there  is  great 
danger  of  cutting  off  too  many  of  the  lateral  branches.  It 
would  by  no  means  be  attended  with  the  best  results  in 
promoting  the  growth  of  a  tree  upward,  to  trim  it  to  a 
bare  stem,  leaving  but  a  small  bush  near  the  top.  If  all 
the  lateral  branches  are  cut  off  close  to  the  leading  stem, 
and  only  a  very  small  top  left,  if  there  be  a  strong  healthy 
root,  that  very  small  top  can  not  use  up  all  the  sap,  and  a 
reaction  will  follow;  and  sometimes  such  a  reaction  is  at- 
tended with  deleterious  consequences  to  the  tree.  On  this 
point  thousands  of  young  farmers,  in  their  eagerness  to 
promote  the  upward  growth  of  their  young  fruit-trees,  by 
trimming  small  trees  to  a  single  stem,  with  nothing  but  a 
few  buds  or  bunches  of  leaves  near  the  top,  have  found 
that  their  trees  grew  slowly  when  every  thing — aside  from 
this  excessive  pruning — favored  a  rampant  growth.  The 
truth  is,  if  a  tree  has  a  healthy,  strong  root,  the  leading 
stem  will  grow  upward  much  faster  by  clipping  off  the 
ends  of  the  lateral  branches — unless  it  has  a  very  heavy 
top — than  it  would  if  we  cut  off  most  of  them  close  to  the 
stem.  The  leaves  of  a  tree  are  its  lungs ;  and  there  must 
be  leaves  on  a  tree  in  proportion  to  the  sap  that  is  sent  up- 
ward by  the  roots.  When  there  are  not  leaves  enough  to 
elaborate  the  sap,  stagnation  of  the  sap  ensues  in  some 
trees  and  shrubs ;  while  in  others,  numerous  buds  from  the 
body  of  the  tree  will  start,  and  long  slender  sprouts  will,  if 


PMUNINO  AND   TRAINING.  115 

allowed  to  grow,  soon  form  a  heavy  top.  By  continuing 
to  pinch  off  the  extremities  of  the  branches  that  are  push- 
ing upward,  the  lateral  branches  can  thus  be  induced  to 
spread  out  in  a  direction  to  make  a  low-topped  tree.  Be- 
fore young  tillers  of  the  soil  can  be  expected  to  understand 
why,  when,  and  how  to  prune  a  fruit-tree  correctly,  they 
must  read  and  think,  and  think  and  read,  and  make  inquiry 
and  observations  on  this  subject  for  years. 

Why  we  Prune. — We  prune  trees  and  vines  to  promote 
fruitful ness,  to  prevent  the  production  of  much  small  fruit, 
to  produce  fairer  and  larger  fruit,  and  to  make  trees  grow 
of  a  more  desirable  form  and  symmetry.  At  one  time,  we 
prune  or  pinch  to  induce  a  tree-top  to  spread  out  broader 
and  to  produce  a  lower  top.  At  another  time,  we  want  the 
branches  to  push  upward  rather  than  laterally.  Sometimes 
Nature  sends  out  several  rival  shoots,  all  of  which  can  not 
be  fully  developed ;  or,  if  they  could,  it  would  not  be  desira- 
ble to  allow  so  many  to  grow.  Hence  a  part  must  be  cut 
away.  When  trees  and  vines  are  permitted  to  grow  with- 
out pruning,  it  frequently  occurs  that  four  branches  are 
formed  where  there  should  be  only  one.  Hence,  after  a  few 
years,  one  or  more  of  these  branches  must  fail  and  decay. 
To  appearance,  Nature  made  a  mistake  in  starting  too  many 
branches.  Hence  she  must  divert  all  the  sap  into  one  or 
two,  and  dispose  of  the  supernumerary  ones  as  best  she 
may.  Nature  does  a  vast  amount  of  pruning,  both  in  fruit- 
trees  and  in  the  forest.  Branches  are  often  allowed  to  de- 
cay and  drop  off  the  parent  stem,  because  they  were  not 
needed.  But  such  a  mode  of  pruning  is  far  from  being 
scientific  and  artistic.  And  yet,  it  is  the  only  way  that 
Nature  can  perform  this  important  operation.  Hence  we 
prune  to  aid  Nature  in  performing  her  task  as  perfectly  as 
possible.  But  pruning  trees  and  vines  is  an  operation  re- 
quiring the  skill  of  the  pruner  in  connection  with  the  efforts 


116  THE  AITLE  CULTUMIi^T. 

of  Nature.  She  often  starts  a  score  of  buds  on  a  stem, 
only  a  small  portion  of  which  should  be  permitted  to  grow. 
Here  the  judgment  and  skill  of  the  pruner  must  be  brought 
into  exercise  just  as  the  buds  are  beginning  to  develop. 
Nature  has  afforded  an  excellent  opportunity  to  choose  one 
or  more  of  the  most  desirable  buds  for  the  future  branches, 
and  to  destroy  the  others  before  the  energies  of  the  grow- 
ing tree  have  been  largely  employed  in  producing  large 
branches,  which  must  be  cut  off  as  soon  as  they  are  formed. 
Some  American  pomologists  of  the  present  day  advocate 
the  utter  abandonment  of  pruning  fruit-trees ;  and  they 
have  pointed  to  productive  trees  of  beautiful  form  and 
symmetry  as  evidence  that  Nature  does  not  need  the  as- 
sistance of  art  in  the  production  of  fi'uit-orchards.  But  it 
is  never  safe  to  leave  any  tree  entirely  to  the  operations  of 
Nature,  as  some  trees  will  grow  about  as  nearly  correct  in 
every  particular  as  can  be  desired,  while  others  will  assume 
the  density  of  a  thicket,  and  others  still  will  send  out  long, 
slender  branches  and  twigs,  having  only  a  few  fruit-buds 
at  the  extremities,  reminding  us  of  a  far-reaching  and  cov- 
etous person  for  the  acquisition  of  a  broad  extent  of  coun- 
try, which  he  has  no  ability  to  occupy  or  cultivate.  Nature 
will  sometimes  do  all  necessary  pruning;  but  she  will  be  a 
long  period  doing  it.  Hence  we  pinch  and  prune,  to  aid 
Nature  both  in  facilitating  her  operations,  and  in  perform- 
ing her  allotted  tasks  in  a  skillful  and  artistic  manner.  As 
has  already  been  stated,  many  trees  will  grow  and  develop 
almost  every  branch  and  bud  in  a  symmetrical  and  artist- 
ic manner.  So,  many  children  seem  to  grow  up  to  man- 
hood and  w^omanhood  complete  ladies  and  gentlemen,  with- 
out any  apparent  training.  Still,  there  is  a  law  in  fruit- 
culture  which  requires  the  exercise  of  the  cultivator's 
judgment  in  pinching  and  pruning;  and  he  who  under- 
takes  to   evade  or  ignore  it  in  the  neglect  of  his  fruit- 


PRUNIXG  AND  TRAINING.  117 

trees  will  find  his  well-deserved  punishment  in  miserable 
fruits. 

Beginning  to  Prune. — We  have,  for  example,  a  young 
grafted  tree  (Fig.  46),  the  top  of  which  it  is  desirable  to 
train,  from  year  to  year,  until  a  neat  and  symmetrical  head 
is  formed,  similar  to  Fig.  51.     During  the  first  two  to  four 


An  apple-tree  properly  trained  and  pruned. 

seasons,  according  to  the  rapidity  of  the  growth  of  the 
young  tree,  no  other  pruning-tool  than  the  thumb-nail  will 
be  required,  providing  the  pruning  is  done  at  the  proper 
time.  All  the  low  branches,  spurs,  and  leaves  should  be 
allowed  to  grow,  as  a  young  tree  can  not  flourish  without 
leaves.  But,  after  the  branches  have  grown  about  one  foot 
long  on  each  side,  let  the  ends  be  pinched  off,  say  one-fourth 
of  an  inch,  sufficient  to  check  their  lateral  extension,  to 
cause  the  stem  of  the  tree  to  grow  more  stocky,  and  to  in- 


118  THE  APPLE  CULTUEIST. 

duce  the  sap  to  push  the  central  stem  upward  with  more 
rapidity.  But,  while  it  is  the  aim  to  promote  the  upward 
growth  of  the  central  stem,  the  pruner  must  exercise  judg- 
ment over  the  upward  growth,  that  it  does  not  shoot  up  too 
tall  and  slender.  If  the  central  stem  does  not  develop  in 
size  and  lateral  proportions  fully  equal  to  the  upward 
growth,  let  the  top  be  pinched  a  trifle,  which  will  induce 
the  head  to  thicken-up.  In  case  the  topmost  bud  or  buds 
start  upward  before  the  body  of  the  stem  and  side  branch- 
es have  become  sufficiently  stocky,  pinch  the  bud  alluded 
to  again,  and  keep  the  upward  growth  back,  and  thus  pro- 
mote the  thickening  of  the  main  stem.  Many  young  prun- 
ers,  in  their  eagerness  to  get  tall  trees,  have  rubbed  off  all 
the  buds  on  a  slender  stem,  except  a  small  number  near  the 
top ;  and  the  consequence  was,  that  the  growth  was  very 
slender  and  feeble,  so  much  so  that  there  was  nothing  but  a 
central  stem,  and  that  was  so  slender  that  it  could  not  stand 
erect  without  a  stake.  In  order  to  have  the  central  stem 
grow  with  the  greatest  rapidity,  we  must  reserve  stems  and 
leaves  around  it,  clear  to  the  ground.  But  the  pruner  must 
avoid  the  error  of  promoting  a  long  and  slender  growth  to 
the  neglect  of  a  stocky  development.  If  the  central  stem 
does  not  enlarge  in  size,  so  as  to  be  of  a  fair  proportion  to 
the  height,  keep  the  topmost  bud  pinched  off,  and  thus  stop 
the  upward  growth  entirely  until  every  part  is  thickened-up 
in  a  satisfactory  manner.  Then  the  central  stem  may  be 
allowed  to  push  up  another  foot.  The  great  aim  is  to  get 
every  part  started  correctly. 

Low  or  High  Heads. — ^If  it  is  the  purpose  of  the  pruner 
to  form  low  heads,  so  low  that  one  can  step  from  the  ground 
on  the  first  branches,  let  him  select  four  branches,  or  buds, 
say  two  feet  from  the  ground,  to  be  trained  as  the  first  sys- 
tem of  lateral  branches.  About  twenty  inches  above  these 
choose  four  other  buds  for  a  second  system  of  branches; 


PRUNING  AND   TRAINING.  119 

and  so  continue  to  do  as  the  central  stem  pushes  upward, 
rubbing  or  cutting  off  all  buds  and  twigs  on  the  central 
stem  between  every  two  systems  of  branches.  The  central 
stem  will  push  upward  two  feet  or  more  annually,  if  the 
soil  is  fertile  and  properly  cultivated.  But  it  will  be  more 
satisfactory,  every  summer  after  the  central  stem  has  pushed 
upward  about  twenty  inches,  to  pinch  the  topmost  bud,  and 
stop  its  upward  growth  for  the  season.  Then,  the  next 
year,  it  will  send  out  a  system  of  lateral  branches  at  the 
point  where  the  growth  of  the  previous  season  ended.  In 
case  it  is  desirable  to  form  high  heads,  so  high  that  a  horse 
can  travel  beneath  the  lower  branches,  let  the  first  system 
of  limbs  be  commenced  about  five  feet  from  the  ground, 
after  which  proceed  according  to  previous  directions.  All 
through  the  growing  season,  the  pruner  must  watch  his 
young  trees  every  week,  to  see  if  the  tops  are  growing  uni 
formly  on  every  side.  One  branch  may  be  pushing  out  too 
rapidly,  and  robbing  its  fellow  of  a  proper  proportion  of 
sap  and  space.  Let  the  terminal  buds  of  such  aspirants  be 
pinched  a  little,  and  continue  to  pinch  them  until  others  are 
even  with  them.  When  too  large  a  number  of  twigs  push 
out  on  the  sides  of  lateral  branches,  cut  off  those  that  will 
not  be  needed.  If  a  sub-branch  begins  to  push  away  more 
rapidly  than  those  around  it,  pinch  the  end,  to  keep  its 
growth  within  desired  bounds.  By  attending  to  pinching 
at  the  proper  time,  a  pruner  will  be  able  to  make  his  tree- 
tops  assume  almost  any  desired  form. 

How  to  Prune. — Before  a  person  proceeds  to  pinch  off  a 
bud  or  cut  off  a  branch,  he  should  be  able  to  state  to  an- 
other person,  what  kind  of  a  tree,  as  to  form,  he  desires — 
what  he  proposes  to  effect  by  pinching  off  a  bud  or  sever- 
ing a  branch,  and  how  his  tampering  with  buds  and  branch- 
es will  accomplish  the  end  in  view.  The  first  important 
point  is  to  obtain  a  definite  and  correct  idea  of  what  you 


120 


THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 


The  fruit  is  of  a  medium  size,  oblate-conic,  frequently  round,  or  nearly  so,  and 
smooth,  with  a  yellow  grouud  beautifully  striped  with  red,  covered  with  a  light- 
colored  bloom,  beneath  which  is  a  ehiuing  skiu.  The  flesh  is  white  and  juicy, 
sprightly  acid,  fragrant  and  agreeable  ;  seasou  usually,  at  the  North,  August  and 
September.  The  tree  is  an  upright  and  spreading  grower,  a  good  bearer,  and 
produces  fair  crops  of  frnit  when  only  a  few  years  old.  It  is  usually  a  very  hardy 
variety,  and  the  leaves  are  large  and  heavy. 


wish  to  do  before  you  touch  the  tree.  A  general  vague 
conviction  that  fruit-trees  need  pruning,  or  thinning  out 
to  keep  an  open  head,  by  removing  weak  and  conflicting 
branches,  constitutes  the  whole  stock  of  information  with 
which  most  persons  commence  the  yearly  attack  upon  the 
orchard.  There  is  no  careful  study  of  the  habit  and  pecu- 
liarities of  each  species  of  tree;  no  thought  of  what  each 
individual  tree  has  done  in  the  past,  or  is  expected  to  do  in 
the  future,  whether  it  is  prematurely  forming  fruit  buds, 
or  running  to  wood  too  luxuriantly;  no  special  care  for  a 


PRUNING  AND  TRAINING. 


121 


Pig.  62. 


Pruning  ■  aaios. — When  pruniug 
trees,  the  branches  of  which  are 
too  large  to  be  cut  off  with  a  strong 
pruning-knife,  a  praning-saw  or 
two  (Fig.  52)  will  be  desirable. 
A  and  B  represent  the  most  ap- 
proved style  of  such  saws,  copied, 
by  permission,  from  R.  H.  Allen's 
Catalogue  of  Agricultural  Imple- 
ments, one  of  which  has  coarse 
teeth,  for  cutting  oflf  large  branch- 
es, and  the  other  fine  teeth,  for 
small  branches. 

Fig.  53. 


Pruning-saws. 


Pruning-  shears. 

Pruning- sTiears,  like  the  above 
(Fig.  53),  will  frequently  be  found 
convenient  when  clipping  the  ex- 
tremities of  small  branches. 

A  Combined  Pruning  -  chisel  and 
Saw. — Figure  54  represents  a  con- 
venient instrument  for  pruning  old 
trees,  while  the  operator  stands  on 
the  ground.  The  end  of  a  stiff 
pole  enters  the  socket;  and  small 
branches  may  be  severed  with  the 
chisel  by  means  of  a  thrust,  or 
they  can  be  sawed  oflf  at  the  de- 
sired place.  Such  a  combined  in- 
strument will  be  found  efficient  for 
I'emoving  sprouts  and  dead  branch- 
es from  neglected  trees.  The  saw 
should  have  fine  teeth,  or  it  will  be 
difficult  to  make  it  work.  In  some 
instances,  the  saw  will  cut  more 
satisfactorily  by  changing  ends 
with  it. 


yl 


A  pruning-saw 
and  chisel. 


weak  but  important  shoot  which  is  receiving  too  little 
nourishment,  because  a  gourmand  above  it  is  monopolizing 
all  the  sap  and  sunlight;  no  calculation  for  future  years, 
that  the  foundation  now  laid  shall  be  the  basis  of  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  branches,  filling  advantageously  every  part 
of  the  tree,  while  none  shall  crowd  or  interfere  with  its 
neighbors. 

In  most  instances,  the  tree  is  said  to  need  pruning,  and 

6 


122  TEE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

the  attack  is  made.  The  saw  and  axe  are  brought,  and  in 
a  single  hour  one-third  of  the  top  is  cut  out.  A  tree  should 
never,  in  this  sense,  need  pruning.  The  difficulty  should 
be  avoided,  rather  than  remedied ;  so  that,  instead  of  fell- 
ing great  branches,  the  finger  and  thumb,  or  at  most  the 
pruning-knif  e,  will  be  sufficient  to  direct  the  growth  of  stal- 
wart limbs.  The  direction  of  a  skillful  pruner  always  is 
to  fix  in  your  mind  the  general  form  of  a  perfect  tree  of 
the  variety  you  are  about  to  operate  upon,  and  to  this  ideal, 
as  nearly  as  possible,  train  your  subject ;  not,  of  course,  ar- 
bitrarily, or  in  one  year,  but,  by  patiently  studying  the  pe- 
culiarities of  your  tree,  bring  it  gradually  to  the  desired 
form.  In  respect  to  the  shape,  fruit-trees  may  be  classified 
into  globular,  or  round-headed  trees,  like  the  apple ;  semi- 
globular,  or  goblet-shaped,  as  the  peach ;  and  the  conical, 
like  the  pear  and  the  cherry.  It  is  important  that,  while 
we  divert  Nature  from  her  wonted  course  to  fulfill  our  es- 
pecial ends,  we  do  no  violence  to  her  principles.  Faults 
there  are  to  be  corrected,  deficiencies  to  be  supplied,  but 
always  obediently  to  the  guidance  of  nature.  There  is  a 
typical  form,  then,  for  each  variety  of  tree,  which  should  be 
regarded  from  the  commencement.  A  pruner  must  set  up 
before  the  mind  a  beau  ideal  of  the  form  of  tree  or  bush 
desired.  Then,  all  through  the  growing  season,  the  buds 
should  be  watched  closely.  If  a  bud  appears  where  a 
branch  is  not  desired,  pinch  it  ofP;  and  leave  buds  on  the 
main  stem  wherever  a  branch  is  desired.  Grafts  from  ci- 
ons  that  were  set  last  season  should  be  examined  frequent- 
ly, to  see  if  the  main  stems  and  lateral  branches  are  all 
growing  uniformly.  The  pruner  must  understand  the  man- 
ner of  growth  common  to  the  variety  he  is  about  to  prune. 
All  apple-trees  do  not  grow  alike.  Hence,  for  a  pruner  to  at- 
tempt to  compel  a  tree  having  a  natural  tendency  to  a  certain 
form  to  assume  another,  would  be  attended  with  much  un- 


PBUNINO  AND  TBAININQ. 


123 


Fig.  55.   availing  trouble,  and  probably  with  positive  injury 
^^7  to  the  productiveness  of  the  tree.     The  great  diffi- 
l    I      culty  is  to  make  the  lower  branches  grow  thrifty, 
if    /        and  in  due  proportion  to  the  upper  ones.     The 
whole  secret  lies  in  the  management  of  the  huds. 
Every  shoot  and  branch  commences  life  as  a  bud ; 
and  it  is  in  infancy  that  their  proper  number  and 
position  must  be  determined.  "  Leave  no  more  buds 
upon  a  shoot  whose  growth  you  wish  to  increase 
than  can  be  maintained  in  perfect  vigor.     This  will 
generally  be  about  one-third  of  the  number  of  buds 
produced ;  so  that  of  those  shoots  designed  to  re- 
ceive the  largest  development,  two-thirds  of  the 
^kuife^"  ^^^*  year's  growth  must  be  cut  off.     These  should 
be  shortened-in  before  they  start  in  the  spring.     If 
still  the  upper  branches  grow  too  strong,  summer  pinching 
will  furnish  the  requisite  discipline  for  them.     We  have 
always  found   it   a  ^.     . 

^  Fig.  56. 


and  cori'ect 
rule,  when  pruning 
a  fruit-tree  of  any 
kind,  to  imagine 
that  a  full-grown  ap- 
ple-tree was  stand- 
ing before  us,  with 
no  supernumerary 
branches,  and  no 
limbs  crowding  each 
other,  or  riding  one 
on  the  other,  like 
the  cut  of  a  tree, 
Fig.  56,  which  repre- 
sents an  apple-tree 
that  has  been  train- 


An  apple-tree  trained  with  a  high  top. 


124  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

ed  from  its  first  year's  growth  until  it  had  developed  into 
a  perfect  tree  that  needs  no  pruning.  The  top,  as  may  be 
seen,  is  well  filled  up  with  bearing  branches ;  the  form  is 
symmetrical,  the  head  high,  and  the  pruning  has  been  such 
that  a  person  can  climb  about  in  the  top,  when  gathering 
the  fruit,  with  little  difficulty.  This  is  only  one  model.  Al- 
though every  apple-tree  can  not  be  expected  to  have  a  top 
exactly  like  this,  unless  it  is  of  the  same  variety,  still  those 
that  grow  differently  may  be  trained  so  that  the  form  will 
be  quite  as  symmetrical  as  this.  One  great  aim  of  the 
pruner  must  be  to  have  the  middle  of  the  top  filled  up  with 
bearing  branches.  Then  he  must  avoid  pruning  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  have  wide-spreading  tops,  with  only  a  large 
bush  on  the  end  of  a  long  branch. 

When  to  Prune. — One  respected  pomologist,  in  reply  to 
such  an  interrogation,  will  respond,  "Whenever  your  knife 
is  sharp  " — implying  that  doing  the  work  well  is  more  im- 
portant than  the  selection  of  any  particular  period.  An- 
other authority  declares  :  "  The  season  for  pruning  is  usual- 
ly midwinter,  or  at  midsummer.  It  is,  however,  the  prac- 
tice to  perform  what  is  called  the  winter  pruning  early  in 
the  autumn^  An  author  who  has  penned  about  twenty 
pages  on  pruning,  is  so  diffuse  and  indefinite,  that  all  a  be- 
ginner can  gather  is, "  Prune  in  winter  for  wood,  and  in 
summer  for  fruit."  A.  J.  Downing,  whose  writings  are  re- 
peatedly quoted  as  reliable  authority  on  fruit,  says :  "  We 
should  especially  avoid  pruning  at  that  period  in  spring 
when  the  buds  are  swelling  and  the  sap  is  in  full  flow,  as 
the  loss  of  sap  by  bleeding  is  very  injurious  to  most  trees, 
and  in  some  brings  on  a  serious  and  incurable  canker  in  the 
limbs.  Our  experience  has  led  us  to  believe  that,  practical- 
ly, a  fortnight  before  midsummer  is  by  far  the  best  season, 
on  the  whole,  for  pruning  in  the  Northern  and  Middle  States. 
'Wounds  made  at  this  season  heal  over  freely  and  rapidly." 


PRUNING  ANL   TMAINING.  125 

Another  reputed  authority  says:  "The  best  time  for  a 
general  pruning  is  at  the  close  of  the  first  growth  of  sum- 
mer, 15th  of  June  to  16  th  of  July."  Another  pomologist 
says  :  "  J'une  is  the  time  to  prune  fruit-trees.  Limbs  taken 
off  at  this  season  will  begin  immediately  to  send  out  a 
ring  of  new  wood  just  where  it  is  needed,  and  will  thereby 
protect  itself  in  the  soonest  possible  period  from  external 
harm."  Still  another  writer — whether  he  ever  pruned  a 
tree  or  not,  does  not  appear — says  :  "  From  the  middle  of 
June  to  the  first  of  September  is  claimed  to  be  the  proper 
time  in  which  to  perform  this  important  operation.  Most 
persons  have  observed  that  trees  show  in  August  and  the 
early  part  of  September  what  is  called  a  new  growth.  On 
this  growth  the  color  of  the  foliage  is  a  lighter  green,  and 
has  every  way  the  appearance  of  being  more  recent  than  that 
of  the  rest  of  the  tree.  And  so  it  is.  By  the  time  that  mid- 
summer comes,  most  of  the  sap  that  flowed  up  in  the  spring 
has  gone  to  the  branches,  and  aided  in  expanding  buds  and 
blossoms,  and  in  sending  out  new  leaves  and  extending  the 
twigs.  When  the  tree  has  done  this,  the  superabundant 
sap  returns  down  the  tree  through  the  bark,  and  increases 
its  diameter.  The  tree  has  now  a  season  of  rest.  The  sap- 
vessels  are  comparatively  empty,  so  that  if  its  branches  are 
cut  the  wound  will  rarely  bleed.  The  returning  sap,  we 
suppose,  soon  forms  a  green,  healthy  ring  about  the  cut  in 
the  bark,  and  the  remainder  of  the  cut  dries  and  shrinks 
before  the  sap  is  again  in  motion.  This  season  of  rest,  then, 
of  three  or  more  weeks,  is  the  b6st  time  to  prune.  It  has 
its  inconveniences,  we  are  aware,  but  they  are  of  less  con- 
sequence than  the  injury  of  the  tree.  No  harm  comes  to 
the  tree,  we  believe,  if  pruned  in  the  autumn,  soon  after  the 
leaves  have  fallen.  The  tree  is  then  also  in  a  comparative 
state  of  rest,  and  may  be  cut  judiciously  without  injuring  it." 
Still  another  assumed  authority  proclaims:  "Always  prune 


126  THE  APPLE  CULTURI8T. 

in  winter,  when  there  is  no  foliage  on  the  trees."  Another 
author,  who  knows  how  to  prune  trees  far  better  than  how 
to  instruct  an  inquirer  after  truth,  says :  "  The  correct  pe- 
riod of  pruning  is  when  the  tree  needs  it."  This  is  philo- 
sophically and  practically  correct.  And  yet  the  phrase  re- 
quires an  intelligent  qualification  which  we  will  endeavor 
to  record,  so  that  a  beginner  may  not  be  in  doubt  as  to  the 
proper  period  of  pruning. 

When  a  tree  has  been  allowed  to  grow  at  random  for 
several  years,  so  that  the  top  is  like  a  thicket,  it  should  not 
be  pruned  during  the  growing  season ;  yet  it  may  be  pruned 
at  any  time  after  the  leaves  have  fallen,  until  the  buds  ex- 
pand in  the  spring.  No  doubt  every  practical  pomologist 
will  concur  in  this  declaration,  as  it  is  always  far  better  for 
a  tree  to  remove  large  branches  at  that  season  of  the  year 
when  the  sap  is  in  the  least  motion.  But  when  young  trees 
are  to  be  pruned  and  trained,  more  or  less  pinching  of  buds, 
and  removal  of  twigs  with  a  knife,  must  be  done  during 
the  entire  growing  season.  Hence,  to  affirm  that  the  best 
time  to  prune  is  when  one  has  a  sharp  knife,  is  about  as 
correct  as  the  direction  to  train  children  when  one  is  in 
possession  of  a  rawhide  or  rattan.  As  young  children  re- 
quire daily  training  from  the  cradle  to  manhood — not  when 
they  are  asleep — so  young  trees  require  care  and  pinching 
of  buds,  if  necessary,  from  the  first  year  of  their  growth  un- 
til their  branches  are  bending  beneath  a  load  of  fine  fruit. 
When  the  young  tree  begins  to  grow  in  the  spring  of  the 
year,  if  every  bud  and  branch  is  not  growing  correctly,  then 
is  the  time  to  pinch  or  prune,  as  the  case  may  be.  We 
do  not  let  our  dear  children,  when  they  first  begin  to  walk, 
tottle  off  the  door-step,  run  into  the  fire,  or  grow  up  in 
vice,  disobedience,  and  immorality,  and  then  give  them  a 
cruel  chastisement  for  their  conduct.  But  we  begin  to 
lead,  direct,  and  mould  in  the  hud.     So  we  must  begin  in 


mUNINQ  AND   TH AIMING.  127 

early  spring-time  to  pinch  off  certain  buds  that  would  grow 
into  branches  which  would  have  to  be  cut  off.  Here  lies 
the  great  secret  of  scientific  pruning  and  training — pinch- 
ing off  a  bud  that  would  make  a  branch  which  must  be  cut 
off.  A  pruner  who  is  master  of  his  employment,  can  glance 
at  a  young  tree,  see  where  there  are  buds,  and  in  three  min- 
utes prune  it  with  his  thumb-nail,  so  that  the  tree  may  need 
no  more  care  for  the  entire  season.  Again,  another  young 
tree,  like  a  perverse  youth,  may  require  pinching  a  little 
every  month  during  the  growing  season.  These  sugges- 
tions will  furnish  a  beginner  with  some  correct  notions  as 
to  the  proper  time  for  pruning. 

Trees  which  have  been  properly  managed  during  their 
whole  growth  will  never  need  the  cutting  away  of  large 
limbs,  unless  they  have  been  injured  by  teams  or  broken 
by  snow  or  wind.  Pinching  buds  and  cutting  off  branches 
will  always  depend  so  much  on  circumstances,  that  a  begin- 
ner must  first  make  himself  familiar  with  all  the  operations 
of  pruning  before  he  will  be  competent  to  train  fruit-trees 
of  any  kind.  When  he  has  learned  how  to  prune  correctly, 
he  will  have  a  more  perfect  understanding  as  to  the  most 
proper  period  during  the  entire  year.  He  must  bear  in 
mind  that  we  often  prune  to  diminish  nutritive  vigor,  and 
prune  to  increase  it;  to  diminish  the  generative  or  fruit- 
producing  tendency,  and  to  increase  it ;  to  encourage  the 
feeble,  and  reduce  the  over-luxuriant.  By  a  variation  in  the 
same  process,  under  favorable  circumstances,  we  can  para- 
lyze the  leaf-bud,  producing  thereby  a  blossom-bud ;  and 
we  can  stimulate  the  blossom-bud  until  a  leaf-bud  will  be 
developed. 

Where  to  cut  off  Branches. — Kature  has  indicated,  even 
in  the  smallest  twig,  the  proper  place  to  cut  off  a  branch. 
By  examining  a  branch  close  to  the  body  of  a  tree,  it  will 
be  seen  that  there .  are   creases,  beads,  or  rings  running 


128 


THE  APPLE  CULTUBIST. 


Fig.  57. 


around  the  branch.  The  place  to  sever  a  branch,  there« 
fore,  is  close  to  the  ring  around  the  stub  at  A.  Then  the 
wound  will  heal  much  sooner  than  if  the  ring  were  re- 
moved, making  the  cut  smooth  with  the  body  of  the  tree. 
Many  tree-jnurderers  often  cut  off  limbs  several  inches 
from  the  main  stem.  This  is  the  true  and  effectual  way  to 
make  trees  decay  at  the  heart.     This  illustration  (Fig.  57) 

will  elucidate  that  point  with  suf- 
ficient clearness  to  enable  a  pruner 
to  see  at  a  glance  what  most  prun- 
ers  have  never  thought  of.  If  a 
tree  has  been  properly  pruned, 
there  will  be  no  occasion  for  cut- 
ting off  large  branches,  except  in 
rare  instances.  In  case  branches 
should  be  injured  in  any  way,  so 
that  it  would  appear  necessary  to 
cut  off  the  limb  close  to  the  body 
of  the  tree,  the  cultivator  should 
know  exactly  where  the  right 
place  is.  A  limb  as  large  as  a 
How  to  bolt  a  forked  tree:  where  man's  arm  or  leg  may  be  sawed 

to  cut  off  branches.  t<o        •>  t      •,  -> 

oil  a  large  tree,  and  the  wound 
heal  over  readily,  provided  a  clear  and  smooth  cut  be  made, 
as  indicated,  and  the  surface  be  covered  with  a  heavy  coat 
of  grafting-wax,  and  the  wax  covered  with  a  piece  of  strong 
paper,  as  previously  directed. 

Some  pruners  have  recommended,  when  taking  off  large 
limbs,  not  to  make  the  cut  parallel  with  the  stem,  but  start 
the  knife  on  the  lower  side  of  the  branch,  a  little  up  from 
the  base  of  it,  and  bring  it  out  on  the  upper  side  exactly 
where  the  branch  parts  from  the  stem,  so  that  the  cut,  when 
made,  will  form,  measured  down  the  trunk,  an  angle  with  it 
of  65  or  VO  degrees.     If  a  branch  is  cut  off  smooth,  parallel 


PRUNING  AND   TRAINING.  129 

with  and  close  to  the  trunk,  the  wound,  it  is  contended, 
will  be  one-third  larger,  with  no  advantage,  and  requiring  a 
greater  effort  of  the  tree  to  recover.  But  by  starting  the 
cut  a  little  way  out  from  the  stem,  and  cutting  upward  ex- 
actly to  it,  the  wound  is  not  only  smaller,  but  sap  will  de- 
termine more  strongly  to  the  base  of  the  cut,  which  will 
soon  cause  the  wound  to  be  covered.  Such  wounds  should 
be  pared  smooth,  in  order  that  they  may  quickly  heal  over. 
Others  will  persist  in  cutting  off  large  limbs  from  one  to 
two  inches  from  the  rings  around  the  base  of  the  branch, 
as  shown  at  A  (Fig.  57).  Such  long  stubs  will  almost  al- 
ways decay ;  and  if  they  are  large,  the  entire  stub  will  rot 
clear  to  the  heart  of  the  tree. 

How  to  Cut  off  large  Branches. — Limbs  of  fruit-trees  are 
sometimes  broken  down  by  snow  or  by  a  furious  wind,  so 
that  it  becomes  necessary  to  cut  them  off  close  to  the  body 
of  the  tree.  When  the  amputation  of  a  large  branch  is 
important,  let  it  be  sawed  first,  at  least  one-third  off,  on  the 
under  side,  say  six  inches  from  the  central  stem.  Then  run 
the  saw  down  on  the  upper  side,  to  Fig.  58. 

meet  the  under  kerf.  After  the  limb 
has  dropped  to  the  ground,  saw  off 
the  stub  with  a  smooth  cut  at  the 
rings,  as  directed  p.  128,  and  cover 
the  wound  with  wax  at  once.  This 
precaution  is  necessary  to  prevent  the 
branch  from  splitting  down,  like  Fig. 
58,  before  it  is  sawed  off,  and  thus 
making  a  large  wound  on  the  side  of 
the  tree.  Such  large  branches  are 
frequently  cut  off  with  an  axe,  which  Branch  splitting  down  when 
will  leave  the  wound  very  jagged;  ^^^^  ^^io"gy. 

but  if  a  sharp  pruning-saw  be  employed,  the  surface  of  the 
wound  will  be  smooth,  and  will  quickly  heal  over. 

6* 


130 


THE  APPLE  CULTUBIST. 


An  apple-tree  pruued  wrongly. 


^5^-69.  Injurious  Prun- 

ing.— Fig.  59  rep- 
resents a  style  of 
pruning  which  has 
been,  and  still  is,  in 
vogue  from  Maine 
to  California.  The 
system  may  prop- 
erly be  denomina- 
ted tree  -  murder- 
ing. Let  this  be 
compared  with  the 
well  -  pruned  tree, 
p.  117,  and  it  will 
be  perceived  at 
once  that  the  sys- 
tem illustrated  by 
Fig.  59  is  exceedingly  defective.  And  yet,  this  is  a  fair 
type  of  the  form  which  the  usual  treatment  of  fruit-trees 
produces.  It  may  be  perceived  that  the  whole  growth 
of  young  wood  and  leaves  is  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
tree-top.  This  occurs  in  obedience  to  a  law  of  vegeta- 
ble growth,  which  gives  greater  development  to  the  termi- 
nal buds,  and  to  those  shoots  which  are  nearest  to  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  branches.  This  tendency  is  very  much  in- 
creased by  the  pruning  which  has  been  practised  by  the 
cultivator,  who  evidently  had  a  very  indefinite  idea  of  the 
objects  to  be  obtained  by  this  operation.  Yet,  having  heard 
from  his  infancy  that  fruit-trees  should  be  pruned,  with 
such  generalities  for  his  guide  in  the  way  of  instructions 
as  "  thin  out  the  top,"  "  take  out  weak  or  decaying  branch- 
es," "  keep  the  head  of  the  tree  open,"  etc.,  he  has  applied 
axe  and  saw  to  the  limbs  most  conveniently  reached,  es- 
pecially as  he  finds  these  to  be  the  weaker  branches.     In 


PRUNING  AND  TRAININO. 


131 


GKIMES'8  GOLDEN  PIPPIN. 

(Synonym.— Grimes's  Golden.  This  excellent  apple  originated  in  Virginia ;  and 
in  its  native  locality  the  tree  is  prolific  and  hardy.  The  growth  is  upright-spread- 
ing ;  the  fruit  is  of  medium  size,  roundish-oblate,  and  slightly  conical ;  skin,  some- 
what uneven ;  the  color  is  a  rich  golden  yellow,  sprinkled  with  small  gray  and 
light-colored  dots;  flesh,  yellow,  compact,  crisp,  tender,  juicy,  sprightly,  sub-acid, 
with  a  peculiar  aroma.  In  quality,  it  ranks  good  to  best ;  season,  December  to 
April.    A  fine  pie-apple. 


many  orchards  we  may  see  long,  bare  arms,  utterly  desti- 
tute of  any  twigs,  fruit-spurs,  or  foliage,  for  eight  to  twelve 
feet  from  the  body  of  the  tree.  The  author  has  been  in 
more  than  one  apple-tree  top,  some  of  the  large  limbs  of 
which  were  perfectly  bare  for  fourteen  feet  in  length !  On 
the  end  of  these  long  arms  there  were  branches  and  twigs 
about  equal  to  a  small  tree  five  or  six  years  old.  Is  any 
person  possessed  of  sufficient  wisdom  to  tell  of  the  advan- 
tage resulting  from  such  long  and  bare  arms  ?  We  have 
never  met  with  such  a  savant.  Nature  always  makes  a  des- 
perate effort  to  correct  the  errors  of  a  tree-murderer,  by 


132  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

sending  out  numerous  sprouts  to  shade  the  bare  arms  of  the 
tree,  as  represented  by  the  cut  on  p.  130.  This  fact  shows 
that  all  the  vacant  space  within  the  head  of  the  tree  should 
be  occupied  by  bearing  branches;  and  the  upper  side  of 
horizontal  arms  should  be  covered  with  fruit-spurs  and 
leaves,  or  small  branches,  to  shade  the  surface  of  the  large 
limbs.  Many  a  valuable  tree  has  been  seriously  damaged 
by  the  scalding  heat  of  the  sun  pouring  dow^n  on  a  large 
limb  or  on  the  side  of  a  leaning  tree. 

Forked  Trees  to  be  avoided. — Many  fruit-trees  are  more 
inclined  to  produce  a  forked  than  a  single  stem.  A  forked 
top  should  never  be  allowed  to  form,  as  such  tree-tops  are 
exceedingly  liable  to  split  apart  at  the  fork,  to  the  great  in- 
jury of  the  tree,  and  frequently  to  its  entire  destruction. 
It  is  very  easy  to  prevent  the  formation  of  a  fork.  When 
two  small  shoots  become-  rivals,  let  one  of  them  be  kept 
back  by  pinching,  and  be  trained  as  a  lateral  branch,  or  let 
it  be  cut  off  smoothly  close  to  the  other  stem.  A  fork 
should  not  be  allowed  to  form  on  any  of  the  branches,  as 
one  or  the  other  will  most  assuredly  split  down,  either  be- 
neath the  heavy  burden  of  fruit  or  when  some  person  steps 
on  it,  while  gathering  the  fruit.  There  is  no  gain  in  any  re- 
spect by  allowing  a  tree  to  grow  into  a  forked  top.  The 
tree  will  not  be  so  symmetrical,  neither  will  it  yield  any 
more  fruit.  Hence,  if  a  fork  has  been  allowed  to  form,  so 
that  the  branches  are  as  large  as  a  man's  arm,  it  will  be  far 
better  to  saw  off  one  fork  than  to  allow  the  top  to  increase 
in  size.  But  see  that  the  w^ound  is  covered  with  a  heavy 
coat  of  grafting-wax  and  paper.  In  case  a  forked  tree- 
top  has  attained  a  large  size,  let  a  half-inch  iron  bolt  be  put 
through  the  body  six  or  eight  inches  above  the  junction  of 
the  forks,  and  let  the  nut  be  screwed  up  tightly.  Let  a 
large  flat  head  be  made  on  the  bolt,  and  let  a  w^ide  washer 
be  placed  beneath  the  nut.     Should  there  be  two  lateral 


PRUNING  AND   TEAINING. 


133 


branches  which  can  be  united  by  ap-  Fig.  60. 

proach-grafting,  the  two  forks  may  be 
kept  from  spUtting  down  by  this  ar- 
rangement. When  pruning  young  trees, 
let  the  pruner  keep  this  one  thought 
bright,  to  avoid  forked  tops  and  forked 
branches.    (See  Fig.  57,  p.  128.) 

Doty's  Combined  Pruner  and  Pruit- 
plucker. — The  illustration  herewith  giv- 
en represents  a  useful  and  eflScient  tool, 
which  has  been  perfected  by  Wm.  M. 
Doty,  of  New  York  city,  for  pruning 
berry-bushes ;  and  which  is  an  admira- 
ble edge-tool  for  pruning  any  kind  of 
fruit-trees.  At  the  left  side  of  Fig.  60, 
the  pruner  and  plucker  is  represented 
as  ready  for  use.  At  a  the  little  sack 
is  represented,  which  is  employed  to  re- 
ceive an  apple  when,  the  chisel  severs 
the  stem.  At  b  the  knob  on  the  end  of 
the  piston  is  represented.  The  piston, 
b,  plays  back  and  forth  through  the  me- 
tallic sheath,  c.  At  e  an  enlarged  view 
of  the  metallic  hook  is  given,  which  ap- 
pears in  the  upper  end  of  the  left-hand 
figure.  At/,  a  thin  wide  chisel  is  repre- 
sented, which  moves  back  and  forth  on 
the  side  of  the  hook  e,  when  the  tool  is 
in  use.  At  ^  a  spring  is  shown,  which  draws  the  chisel  back 
after  it  has  been  thrust  forward  to  cut  off  the  branch  that 
may  be  received  in  the  hook,  e.  A  shoulder  is  formed  on 
the  piston,  near  the  iron  knob  b,  by  not  dividing  the  pole 
quite  its  entire  length,  which,  striking  agfiinst  the  end  of 
the  hook-holding  portion,  arrests  any  surplus  force  of  stroke 


Doiy's  combined  pruner 
and  fruit-plucker. 


134 


THE  APPLE  GULTURIST. 


without  injury  to  the  machine.  In  case  a  branch  is  not 
entirely  severed  with  one  stroke,  the  chisel,  being  detached 
from  the  piston,  remains  at  the  point  to  which  it  was  driven 
at  each  stroke,  until  through,  when  the  sjjring  withdraws  it. 
By  employing  a  long  handle,  such  a  device  will  be  found 
convenient  for  cutting  off  twigs,  shortening-in  branches, 
thinning  out  tree-tops,  clipping  off  cions,  cutting  out  cater- 
pillars' nests,  pruning  all  kinds  of  berry-bushes  and  grape- 
vines, and  gathering  choice  specimens  of  fruit  from  high 
branches. 

Training  Fan-shaped  Heads. — One  of  the  most  beautiful 
forms  for  training  the  tops  of  apple-trees,  is  to  train  the 

branches  in  the 
form  of  a  fan,  like 
Fig.  61,  which 
represents  one  of 
a  number  of  ap- 
ple-trees trained 
in  this  manner 
by  an  amateur 
pomologist  living 
on  Long  Island, 
whose  trees,  at 
the  present  writ- 
ing, are  about 
twelve  feet  high, 
and  fourteen  feet 
broad.  The  gen- 
tleman stated  to  us  that  he  entertained  the  conviction 
that  those  trees  are  not  so  productive  as  they  would 
have  been,  growing  in  the  same  places,  if  the  heads  had 
been  allowed  to  assume  their  natural  form.  But  there 
were  no  satisfactory  grounds  for  holding  such  a  belief, 
as   those   fan-shaped   trees    were   quite   as   productive   as 


A  fan-shaped  apple-tree. 


PRUNING  AND   TRAINING. 


135 


others  near  them.  We  recommend  this  form  of  training 
only  for  gardens,  and  other  places  where  space  is  limited. 
Still,  a  person  can  produce  more  than  twice  the  amount  of 
fruit  on  an  area  of  two  rods  square — four  square  rods — by 
having  that  amount  of  ground  occupied  by  three  fan-shaped 
trees,  than  one  tree  would  yield  if  allowed  to  grow  in  its 
natural  form. 

The  great  advantage  of  training  an  apple-tree  in  the 
form  of  a  fan  is,  all  the  branches,  from  the  central  stem  to 
the  extremities  of  the  longest  arms,  can  be  filled  with  fruit, 
most  of  which  will  appear  on  the  outside  of  the  branches, 
where  it  will  receive  the  full  benefit  of  the  sunlight  and  air. 
When  of  this  form,  the  annual  cutting  back  of  straggling 
twigs  or  rampant  branches  can  be  performed  more  advan- 
tageously than  if  the  head  were  round.  Besides  this,  heads 
of  such  a  form  are  more  convenient  than  round  heads,  when 
hunting  depredators,  when  thinning  out  the  fi'uit,  and  when 
gathering  it ;  as  fruit-ladders  can  be  placed  close  by  either 
side,  within  reach  of  every  apple  on  the  tree.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  it  would  pay — where  ground  is  scarce — to  raise 
three  fan-shaped  trees  on  the  same 
ground  that  is  appropriated  to  one 
tree  with  a  globular  or  conical  head. 
In  addition  to  the  foregoing  advan- 
tages, the  trainer  has  all  the  oppor- 
tunity that  can  be  desired  to  renew 
the  bearing  twigs,  by  cutting  them 
back. 

Fig.  62  represents  a  young  tree 
which  is  being  trained  with  a  fan- 
shaped  head.  The  dotted  lines  in- 
dicate where  the  ends  of  the  branch- 
es should  be  cut  back,  when  they 

grow  too  long  and  slender.  Training  a  fan-shaped  tree. 


Fig.  62. 


1 36  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

How  to  Train  a  Fan-shaped  Head. — The  true  way  is  to 
begin  when  the  young  tree  commences  the  second  year's 
growth,  by  leaving  one  bud  on  the  south  side  of  the  main 
stem,  say  twenty  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  ground  for 
a  lateral  branch ;  then,  nearly  opposite  of  this  branch,  leave 
another  bud,  on  the  north  side ;  and  pinch  off  all  others. 
Then,  about  twenty  inches  apart,  on  both  the  south  side  and 
the  north  side,  leave  buds  to  push  out  for  branches,  and  en- 
courage them  to  grow  in  the  desired  direction.  If  any  buds 
or  twigs  appear  on  the  east  or  west  sides  of  the  upright 
central  stem,  let  them  be  removed.  It  is  desirable  that  the 
branches  extend  nearly  north  and  south,  that  the  fruit  on 
both  sides  of  the  tree  may  have  the  benefit  of  the  sun  more 
uniformly  than  if  the  branches  were  trained  east  and  west. 
After  the  central  stem  has  attained  a  height  of  six  feet,  it 
should  not  be  allowed  to  grow  upward  more  than  one  foot 
annually.  After  it  has  grown  about  a  foot,  pinch  the  ter- 
minal bud,  so  as  to  check  the  upward  growth,  and  make  the 
stem  grow  more  stocky  and  strong.  If  any  one  of  the  lat- 
eral branches  should  push  out  faster  than  those  above  or 
below  it,  pinch  the  extremity,  and  keep  the  growth  back, 
so  that  the  branches  above  and  below  it  may  have  an  equal 
chance  to  spread.  The  branches  will  require  attention  ev- 
ery week,  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  a  uniform  growth. 
After  the  lateral  branches  have  begun  to  spread  out,  buds 
will  appear  on  them,  a  portion  of  which  must  be  pinched 
off.  About  six  inches  from  the  central  stem,  encourage  a 
bud  to  send  up  a  fruit-spur,  and  so  train  upright  shoots 
six  inches  apart  on  the  upper  side  of  every  lateral  branch. 
Great  care  must  be  exercised  lest  some  of  the  branches 
shoot  outward  or  upward  too  rapidly.  The  entire  space 
between  all  the  branches  must  be  filled  up  with  fruit-bear- 
ing twigs.  There  will  be  a  sufficient  number  of  buds  to 
form  an  upright  shoot,  as  often  as  is  desirable,  if  the  lateral 


FKUNING  AND   TRAINING.  137 

growth  is  not  permitted  to  shoot  away  too  slender.  And 
the  same  is  true  of  the  upward  growth  of  the  central  stem : 
if  it  is  allowed  to  push  upward  ad  libitum,  in  many  instan- 
ces buds  will  be  wanting.  In  some  instances,  a  branch  may 
require  a  stay  to  hold  it  for  a  few  weeks  in  the  desired  po- 
sition. For  this  purpose  pieces  of  lath  may  be  secured  to 
other  branches  first ;  then  the  perverse  branch  can  be  tied 
to  the  lath.  It  should  be  remembered  that  all  the  train- 
ing alluded  to  should  be  performed  during  the  growing  sea- 
son. By  watching  the  first  development  of  the  buds,  it 
will  be  an  easy  task  to  train  the  young  and  tender  twig  in 
the  desired  direction.  But  let  a  twig  grow  at  random  for 
a  few  weeks,  and  the  trainer  will  need  the  aid  of  numerous 
stays  to  hold  the  branches  and  sub-branches  in  the  desired 
position.  The  foregoing  suggestions  are  particularly  appli- 
cable to  young  trees  that  have  sprung  from  the  seed,  where 
they  are  to  grow,  or  to  any  young  tree  which  has  not  de- 
veloped any  branches. 

Training  Nursery-trees.  —  There  are  two  ways  of  train- 
ing nursery-trees  with  a  fan-shaped  head,  one  of  which  is 
to  remove  the  entire  top  when  the  tree  is  transplanted,  and 
train  it  as  directed  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  as  the  new 
shoots  push  out  from  the  stub  of  the  tree;  and  another 
way  is,  to  tie,  or  secure  by  pieces  of  leather,  horizontal  sticks 
for  stays,  extending  across  the  top  already  formed.  Then 
let  the  branches  be  spread  out  and  secured  by  loops  of  leath- 
er put  around  the  branches,  and  the  ends  fastened  with  nails 
to  the  stays.  We  once  spread  out  the  branches  of  an  ap- 
ple-tree twelve  feet  high,  forming  a  fan-shaped  head,  fast- 
ening them  to  horizontal  stays,  and  completed  a  satisfactory 
job.  Some  of  the  branches  on  the  west  side  had  to  be  re- 
nioved  entirely,  and  some  of  the  vacant  spaces  on  the  upper 
side  of  the  remaining  limbs  had  to  be  filled  by  inserting 
cions  by  side-grafting.     (See  Fig.  5,  p.  29.) 


138 


THE  APPLE  VULTURIST. 


A  fan-shaped  tree. 

Renewing  Apple-trees. — The  fan-shaped  system,  as  was 
hinted  at  on  a  preceding  page,  enables  the  pomologist  to 
renew  the  bearing  branches  with  more  facility  than  it  can 
be  done  when  the  head  of  the  tree  is  of  any  other  form. 
When  the  bearing  shoots  have  become  too  old  to  yield  full 
crops,  let  a  portion  of  them  be  cut  away  entirely,  or  in  part, 
after  which  new  shoots  and  new  fruit-spurs  will  appear, 
which  may  be  trained  at  pleasure,  according  to  the  direc- 
tions of  the  preceding  pages.  Fig.  63  indicates,  by  the  cir- 
cular dotted  line,  where  the  branches  may  be  cut  back,  when 
it  is  desirable  to  renew  the  bearing  twigs.  This  is  easily 
accomplished  by  summer  pruning,  done  generally  in  July  or 
the  fore  part  of  August,  and  even  later,  when  the  season  of 
growth  is  extended.  It  is  not  necessary  to  prune  severely 
to  produce  the  desired  effect  ^  it  will  be  sufficient  to  clip  off 


PIWNINQ  AND   TRAININO. 


139 


OAKADA  BEINETTB. 

Synonyms,  numerous.— White  Pippin ;  (erroneously)  Yellow  Newton  Pippin. 
Fruit.— Size,  large  to  extra  large ;  form,  varying,  generally  roundish  flattened, 
slightly  oblique,  angular,  much  ribbed,  especially  towards  the  crown  or  calyx ; 
color,  light  greenish  yellow,  with  frequently  a  faint  blush  of  red  on  the  sun-exposed 
side  ;  many  small  dark  green  specks,  surrounded  with  light  green  suflFused  beneath 
the  skin,  slightly  russeted ;  flesh,  yellowish  white,  juicy,  crisp,  tender,  sharp,  sub- 
acid, sprightly,  aromatic;  core,  small,  compact;  seeds  very  dark  brown,  almost 
black ;  season,  December  to  May.  Tree.— A  very  strong,  vigorous,  upright  grower 
while  young,  forming  a  large,  spreading,  open-orchard  tree,  quite  hardy,  produc- 
tive, and  profitable.    An  old  French  variety,  described  nearly  two  centuries  ago. 

the  ends  of  the  prominent  shoots  from  time  to  time,  as  they 
may  be  pushing  forth  to  excess.  Pinching  should  be  done 
late  enough  in  the  season  to  prevent  after-growth,  or  should 
be  kept  up  until  such  growth  is  impossible. 


140  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

When  it  is  desirable  to  renew  apple-trees  having  globular 
or  conical  heads,  the  cutting  back  and  thinning  out  must  be 
performed  by  an  experienced  pruner,  who  undestands  ex- 
actly what  he  desires  to  accomplish.  In  cutting  back  for 
the  purpose  of  renewing  the  growth  and  improving  the 
productiveness  of  a  tree,  we  should  endeavor  not  only  to 
have  the  top  well  balanced,  but  open  also,  so  that  the  air 
and  light  can  have  free  access  to  all  parts  of  the  tree.  A 
free  circulation  of  these  is  necessary  to  vigor  and  vitality 
in  the  interior  of  the  top ;  the  want  of  it  is  what  causes  so 
many  dead  twigs  around  the  body  and  large  limbs  of  the 
tree.  The  fruit  which  grows  in  the  centre  of  the  top  is 
often  shut  out  from  the  light  and  air,  and  is  consequently 
wanting  in  flavor  and  maturity.  Some,  on  this  account, 
have  recommended  an  effort,  by  pruning,  to  throw  the  fruit 
wholly  on  the  outside  of  the  tree.  We  have  seen  what  were 
undoubtedly  many  good  attempts  at  this — trees  where  the 
interior  was  all  cut  out,  and  each  limb  had  a  likeness  to 
the  caudal  appendage  of  a  mule,  the  brush  all  at  the  extreme 
end.  We  think  the  better  way  is  to  thin  out  the  twigs  on 
the  outside,  and  admit  the  light  and  air  to  the  more  shel- 
tered portions.  One  advantage  derived  from  this  would 
be,  that  in  seasons  when  late  frosts  or  severe  storms  destroy 
the  fruit  on  the  outside,  a  portion  of  that  within  would 
probably  escape  injury.  Whatever  may  be  the  style  of 
pruning,  there  shoilld  never  be  any  necessity  for  removing 
large  limbs.  Every  branch  not  wanted  should  be  taken  off 
while  small.  It  is  impossible  to  grow  apples  fair  and  well- 
flavored  on  a  tree  crowded  with  superfluous  branches.  Its 
sluggish  circulation  and  dense  foliage,  which  excludes  the 
sun,  can  furnish  nothing  but  gnarly  and  insipid  fruit.  As 
the  apple-tree  always  branches  low,  this  inclination  should 
be  respected.  Trees  with  low  heads  stand  firmer,  their 
trunks  are  less  exposed,  and  their  fruit  is  much  easier  gath- 


PRUNING  AND   TRAINING.  141 

ered.  If  the  limbs  come  close  to  the  ground,  they  operate 
as  a  mulch,  keephig  the  soil  loose  and  moist.  Trimming 
should  always  be  carefully  done,  the  branch  being  smoothly 
cut,  without  leaving  a  stub  to  die  and  produce  decay,  and 
prevent  the  healmg  over.  More  than  this,  whenever  a 
branch  over  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  is  pruned 
off,  the  wound  made  should  be  covered  with  wax  the  same 
hour,  or  day  at  least,  as  previously  suggested. 

Root-pruning. — Unfortunately  for  the  writer,  he  knows 
only  enough  about  law  to  keep  out  of  cases  of  litigation ; 
and  only  enough  about  root-pruning  to  advise  pomologists 
to  let  Nature  take  care  of  the  growth  of  the  roots.  Few 
persons,  probably,  have  investigated  the  subject  of  root- 
pruning  more  thoroughly  than  we,  having  from  boyhood 
been  on  the  watch  for  a  single  instance  or  experiment  in 
root-pruning  which  afforded  even  a  shadow  of  an  argu- 
ment in  favor  of  the  practice.  We  have  read  many  recom- 
mendations of  root-pruning,  and  have  conversed  with  many 
cultivators  who  were  advocates  of  the  practice.  But  when 
we  have  summed  up  the  whole  matter,  by  inquiring  for 
the  evidence,  aside  from  an  assumption — an  ipse  dixit — the 
whole  conclusion  and  evidence  were  resolved  into  this:  "I 
can  not  prove,  positively,  that  root-pruning  was  beneficial ; 
but  I  am  satisfied  that  the  practice  is  advantageous."  We 
are  not  left  in  any  such  uncertainty  with  regard  to  the  ad- 
vantages of  top-pruning.  We  have  frequently  read  direc- 
tions for  severing  such  and  such  roots,  which  it  would  be 
easy  to  show  should  not  be  pruned  at  all ;  and,  if  severed, 
the  tree  must  sustain  a  severe  injury.  The  truth  on  this 
subject  is,  that  the  instances  in  which  an  apple-tree  needs 
root-pruning  are  like  angel's  visits. 

The  operation  of  root-pruning  is  usually  performed  about 
as  skillfully  as  top-pruning  would  be,  were  the  branches 
thinned  out  by  shooting  repeated  charges  of  large  "  grape- 


142  THE  APPLE  GULTURIST. 

shot"  through  the  tree-tops  with  a  cannon.  In  some  in- 
stances, where  the  soil  is  so  rich  as  to  induce  the  branches  to 
continue  to  grow  late  in  the  summer,  and  even  during  the 
months  of  autumn,  if  the  growth  is  not  checked  by  pinching 
the  spray  in  time  to  allow  the  cambium  of  the  tender  twigs 
to  solidify,  the  new  growth  will  die  during  cold  weath- 
er. Root-pruning  will  check  that  rampant  growth ;  and  if 
the  pruning  should  be  severe,  the  flow  of  sap  will  be  cut 
off  to  such  an  extent  that  the  young  twigs  can  not  be  ma- 
tured. If  the  flow  of  sap  be  cut  off,  the  rampant  growth 
will  be  checked,  frequently,  to  the  serious  injury  of  the 
tree.  Young  shoots  must  be  supplied  with  sap  while  the 
cambium  is  solidifying.  Hence,  the  true  way  to  manage  a 
tree  or  bush,  when  it  continues  to  grow  rampantly,  late  in 
the  season,  is  to  pinch  the  terminal  buds  instead  of  severing 
the  roots.  This  operation  will  stop  the  lateral  and  upward 
extension  of  the  branches,  and  the  sap  and  cambium  will  at 
once  begin  to  develop  the  buds,  thus  inducing  fruitfulness, 
and  promoting  the  maturity  of  the  green  wood  and  Render 
branches,  so  that  before  cold  weather  every  twig  and  shoot 
will  be  fully  ripened,  and  prepared  to  endure  the  rigors  of 
winter  without  injury.  By  pinching  the  terminal  twigs 
late  in  summer  on  some  trees,  and  late  in  September  on 
others,  the  pruner  will  have  complete  control  of  the  growth 
and  development  of  the  branches.  But  let  him  undertake 
to  effect  the  same  object  by  root-pruning,  and  there  will  be 
more  danger  of  injuring  the  trees  than  of  securing  the  ob- 
ject in  view.  A  tree  should  never  be  root-pruned  except 
by  a  person  who  has  had  extensive  experience  in  the  cul- 
ture of  trees.  Let  beginners  beware  of  this  unnatural  and 
dangerous  process  of  mutilating  the  roots.  If  the  terminal 
shoots  of  a  tree  seem  disposed  to  continue  to  grow  after 
the  period  has  passed  when  all  the  wood  should  have  been 
fully  ripened,  take  the  pruner,  Fig.  60,  p.  133,  and  clip  off 


PRUNING  AND  TRAINING. 


143 


the  ends  of  all  those  twigs  that  can  not  be  reached  with  the 
hand.  In  some  instances,  twigs  may  commence  growing 
again,  and  will  require  a  second  clipping.  By  treating  a 
tree  in  this  manner  for  one  or  two  seasons,  this  rampant 
growth  can  be  so  controlled  that  the  great  flow  of  sap  will 
promote  abundant  fruitfulness  rather  than  surplus  wood. 


HUBBARPSTON'S  NONSTJOH. 


A  fine,  large,  early  winter  fruit,  which  originated  in  the  town  of  Hubbardston, 
Mass.,  and  is  of  first-rate  quality.  The  tree  is  a  vigorous  grower,  forming  a  hand- 
some,  branching  head,  and  bears  very  large  crops.  It  is  worthy  of  extensive  or- 
chard culture. — Fruit  large,  roundish-oblong,  much  narrower  near  the  eye.  Skin 
smooth,  striped  with  splashes  and  irregular,  broken  stripes  of  pale  and  bright 
red,  which  nearly  cover  a  yellowish  ground.  The  calyx  open,  and  the  stalk  short, 
and  in  a  russeted  hollow ;  fiesh  yellow,  juicy,  and  tender,  with  an  agreeable 
mingling  of  sweetness  and  acidity  in  flavor ;  season,  October  to  June. 


144  THE  APPLE  CULTUMIST. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

GENERAL    MANAGEMENT    OF    ORCHARDS. 

Be  mindful,  when  thou  hast  entombed  the  shoots, 
With  store  of  earih  around  to  feed  the  roots ; 
With  iron  teeth  of  rakes  and  prongs,  to  move 
The  crusted  earth  and  loosen  it  above.— Vibgil. 

The  duties  of  an  orchardist  are  only  begun  when  the 
young  trees  appear  where  they  are  expected  to  produce  an- 
nual crops  of  fruit.  We  offer  this  suggestion  for  the  pur- 
pose of  waking  up  those  "  take  -  it  -  easy  "  cultivators,  who 
have  imbibed  the  erroneous  impression  that,  after  they  have 
planted  apple-seeds,  and  have  thus  produced  trees  as  high 
as  their  shoulders,  or  have  transplanted  trees  from  the  nur- 
sery, their  labor  and  anxiety  as  to  the  future  orchard  are 
ended  ?  There  was  never  a  more  palpable  delusion.  Young 
apple-trees  will  require  more  care,  at  certain  seasons  of  the 
year,  than  a  flock  of  sheep ;  and  during  a  large  portion  of 
the  growing  season,  the  orchardist  must  spend  a  great  deal 
of  time,  and  expend  much  labor  in  his  orchard.  If  the  soil 
is  thoroughly  cultivated,  he  must  examine  every  tree  fre- 
quently, to  see  if  all  the  branches  and  twigs  are  growing 
correctly.  At  the  same  time,  he  must  not  neglect  to  wage 
an  incessant  war  against  noxious  insects.  All  these  duties 
must  be  attended  to  at  the  proper  period.  We  can  not 
have  a  general  time  of  cultivating  the  soil,  of  pruning,  or  of 
combating  noxious  insects.  The  irksome  duties  in  a  young 
orchard  which  demand  attention  to-day,  may  need  to  be  re- 
peated to-morrow  and  the  next  day.  The  man  who  pur- 
poses to  produce  a  profitable  orchard  of  beautiful  trees. 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  ORCHAMDS.  145 

which  will  yield  bountiful  crops  of  fruit  for  an  age  after  he 
has  passed  away,  must  begin  right,  plant  right,  train  right, 
and  cultivate  right.  Then  his  reward  will  be  as  certain  as 
the  vicissitudes  of  the  seasons. 

Stirring  the  Soil  in  Orchards. — ^Many  young  orchards 
that  are  growing  where  the  soil  is  thin,  having  a  compact 
substratum  beneath,  are  often  root-pruned  to  their  serious 
injury  when  the  ground  is  ploughed.  Young  fruit-trees 
seldom  have  any  roots  to  part  with.  Consequently,  every 
rootlet  that  the  plough  severs  tends  to  retard  the  growth 
of  the  tree.  But  where  the  soil  is  so  porous  that  most  of 
the  roots  strike  deep,  and  spread  out  below  the  range  of 
the  plough,  that  implement  may  be  employed  for  working 
the  soil.  None  but  a  careful  and  intelligent  teamster  should 
be  permitted  to  work  around  fruit-trees  with  any  imple- 
ment ;  and  for  several  feet  around  every  tree,  the  plough 
should  not  be  permitted  to  run  more  than  two  inches  deep. 

The  entire  soil  where  an  orchard  is  growing  should  be 
either  mulched,  or  cultivated,  or  hoed  over  so  frequently 
during  the  growing  season,  that  all  vegetation  will  be  kept 
completely  subdued.  Indian  corn,  potatoes,  turnips,  car- 
rots, or  beans,  may  be  cultivated  between  the  rows  every 
year  for  ten  years.  But  the  ground  round  about  each  tree, 
as  far  as  the  branches  extend,  should  be  left  entirely  free 
from  vegetation.  A  few  inches  in  depth  of  the  surface 
should  be  kept  stirred  with  hand-hoes,  or  horse-hoes,  or  har- 
rows. Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  keeping  all  imple- 
ments from  wounding  the  bodies  of  young  trees.  A  care- 
less booby  will  frequently  do  many  dollars'  damage  with 
the  whiffletrees,  plough,  or  harrow.  A  spade  should  not  be 
used  around  fruit-trees  to  the  injury  of  the  roots;  A  spad- 
ing-fork  is  better,  as  the  tines  will  crowd  the  roots  aside, 
seldom  breaking  even  the  small  ones.  Then,  as  the  hard 
soil  is  broken  up  with  fork-tines,  removed  from  the  roots, 

7 


146  TEE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

and  returned  to  them  thoroughly  pulverized,  all  the  little 
fibres  will  be  brought  into  contact  with  different  portions 
of  soil  that  have  not  been  exhausted  of  their  fertility.  Thus 
comparatively  new  earth  will  settle  around  the  roots,  so 
that  in  a  short  time  the  spongioles  will  begin  to  absorb 
plant-food.  Now,  if  a  spade  be  used,  such  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  roots  will  be  severed,  that  much  of  the  source 
of  plant-food  will  be  cut  off.  Forking  around  fruit-trees  is 
recommended  only  in  certain  instances.  Mulching  is  better 
than  hoeing  and  spading,  or  scarifying  with  a  horse-hoe. 
When  the  soil  is  only  a  few  inches  deep,  and  the  subsoil  so 
compact  that  but  few  roots  can  enter  it,  a  careless  man  with 
a  spade  will  "cut  off  more  than  half  of  all  the  roots,  which 
are  the  main  sources  of  nourishment;  and  the  growth  of 
the  tree  or  plant  will  be  retarded  quite  as  much  as  if  it  had 
just  been  transplanted.  When  a  spadeful  of  soil  is  filled 
with  small  rootlets  and  fibres,  the  spader  had  better  be 
spending  his  time  in  idleness,  than  mutilating  the  roots  of 
either  ornamental  or  fruit  trees. 

Many  an  excellent  orchard  has  been  nearly  ruined  by  di- 
recting some  strong  ploughman,  who  has  been  accustomed 
to  plough  new  land,  to  rip  up  every  square  foot  deeply. 
After  fruit-trees  have  commenced  bearing,  the  ground 
should  not  be  touched  with  a  plough  within  a  distance  of 
eight  feet  from  them.  If  the  soil  requires  renovating,  top- 
dress  and  mulch  it.  If  it  is  so  porous  that  the  roots  will 
strike  down  readily  below  the  reach  of  a  common  plough, 
as  roots  of  trees  always  do  where  there  is  no  compact 
substratum,  there  will  be  but  little  danger  of  mutilating 
the  roots  of  fruit-trees.  A  ploughman  should  possess  suf- 
ficient knowledge  to  judge  correctly  touching  this  subject. 
In  many  sections  of  country,  the  surface-soil,  resting  on  a 
compact  hard-pan,  is  so  thin  that  a  plough,  if  run  ten  inch- 
es deep,  would  cut  off  almost  the  entire  system  of  roots. 


'GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  ORCHARDS. 


147 


A  Thill  Horse-hoe.  —  The  best  horse  implement  that  I 
have  ever  met  with  for  scarifying  the  soil  in  an  orchard  is 
represented  by  Fig.  64.    With  such  a  hoe  the  surface  of 


A  thill  horse-hoe  with  cast-steel  teeth. 


the  ground  can 
be  scarified  two 
or  three  inches 
in  depth,  much 
faster  than  a 
score  of  men 
I  can  accomplish 
the  same  labor 
with  hand-hoes, 
orwithspading- 
forks  and  rakes. 
As  this  implement  is  guided  by  thills  and  handles,  the  teeth 
can  be  run  very  close  to  the  young  trees,  and  be  held  to 
just  skin  the  surface  as  it  passes  the  trees.  By  this  means 
the  surface-roots  of  young  trees  will  not  be  mutilated. 

How  to  Plough  around  Trees. — ^If  there  is  a  grassy  sod 
near  the  trees,  it  will  be  almost  impossible  to  cut  it  all  up 
with  the  plough.  Before  the  ground  is  ploughed,  a  spade, 
or  a  bog-hoe,  should  be  employed  to  cut  up  and  turn  over 
an  area  of  at  least  four  feet  in  diameter.  Then  there  will 
be  no  necessity  for  running  the  plough  too  close  to  the 
trees.  If  the  plough  is  drawn  by  oxen,  great  care  must 
be  exercised  by  the  driver  to  keep  the  team  from  rushing 
astride  of  a  tree  that  the  oxen  can  bend  to  the  ground. 
Well-trained  oxen  will  often  hook  their  under-jaw  around 
the  body  of  a  small  tree  as  they  are  passing  it,  and  bend 
the  top  to  the  ground  in  an  instant.    They  like  to  demolish 


148  THE  APPLE  CULTUBI^T. 

trees  that  they  can  bend  to  the  ground.  That  the  plough- 
man may  have  complete  control  of  his  plough,  there  should 
always  be  a  gauge-wheel  beneath  the  forward  end  of  the 
beam,  so  that  the  ploughman  may  lift  his  plough  entirely 
out  of  the  ground  at  pleasure.  Also,  when  the  plough  ap- 
proaches a  tree,  the  ploughman  should  lift  on  the  handles, 
gauging  the  depth  of  the  furrow  at  pleasure,  near  the  trees. 
If  roots  appear  near  the  surface,  let  the  plough  run  only 
two  or  three  inches  deep  as  it  passes  the  trees.  When 
horses  and  whiffletrees  are  used,  the  whiffletrees  should  not 
be  more  than  twenty-two  inches  in  length,  and  the  driver 
should  exercise  great  care  to  prevent  the  injurious  contact 
of  the  whiffletrees  with  the  tender  trees.  If  there  is  no 
sod  on  the  ground,  it  is  an  excellent  practice  to  do  the 
ploughing  near  the  trees  with  one  horse,  or  with  two  horses 
geared  ad  tandem — one  forward  of  the  other.  So  long  as 
trees  can  be  bent  sideways,  one  person  should  be  employed 
to  bend  the  trees  away  from  the  team,  and  to  elevate  the 
outer  end  of  the  whiffletree  while  passing  each  tree.  Oth- 
erwise, young  trees  will  be  seriously  damaged  by  whiffle- 
trees. A  slight  touch  with  a  whiffletree  will  frequently 
remove  a  piece  of  bark  as  large  as  a  man's  hand.  Such 
wounds  will  be  a  great  injury  to  the  growth  of  young 
trees,  unless  they  are  covered  immediately  with  a  heavy 
coat  of  grafting-wax.  To  say  nothing  of  the  injury  to 
fruit-trees  by  wounding  the  smooth  and  straight  stem,  it 
looks  bad  to  see  young  trees  stove  up  by  unskillful  and 
heedless  ploughmen.  We  have  in  mind  a  young  farmer 
who  cultivated  a  large  young  orchard  for  more  than  ten 
years ;  and  not  a  scar  could  be  found  on  one  of  the  trees. 
No  one  except  himself  was  permitted  to  manage  a  team 
or  to  handle  an  implement  near  those  trees. 

Muzzles  for  Teams. — No  team,  whether  ox,  ass,  or  horse, 
should  ever  be  permitted  to  come  near  young  trees  of  any 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  OR  CHARD  li.  149 

kind   until  a  good  muzzle  is   se-  Fig.  65. 

cured  over  the  mouth,  as  repre- 
sented by  Fig.  65.  A  pair  of  wire 
muzzles  may  be  obtained  at  most 
hardware  stores  in  large  cities  for 
about  twenty-five  cents  each,  which 
will  be  serviceable  for  an  age,  if 
properly  taken  care  of  when  not 
in  use.  Muzzles  are  usually  fast- 
ened to  the  bits  of  a  horse's  bridle,  ^  wire  muzzle  ra  the  nose  of  a 
and  to  the  heads  of  oxen,  by  tying 

a  strong  cord  to  one  side  of  the  muzzle,  and  passing  it  over 
the  top  of  the  animal's  head  to  the  other  side.  A  good 
muzzle  may  be  made  in  a  few  minutes  with  narrow  strips 
of  firm  leather.  Every  intelligent  teamster  knows  so  well 
that  he  does  not  need  to  be  told,  that  most  teams  will  crop 
off  the  entire  growth  of  one  season  at  a  single  bite,  when 
they  are  passing  a  tree ;  and  nothing  but  good  muzzles  will 
prevent  such  a  casualty. 

Harrowing  Orchards. — Most  kinds  of  harrows  are  apt  to 
operate  roughly  when  drawn  near  young  trees.  Many  times, 
when  the  driver  has  made  fair  calculations  for  the  imple- 
ment to  pass  a  tree,  the  opposite  side  will  encounter  some 
obstruction,  or  hang  in  the  hard  soil,  and  thus  be  the  means 
of  throwing  the  opposite  wing  of  the  implement  so  forcibly 
against  the  body  of  the  tree  as  to  make  a  large  wound. 
This  is  especially  true  of  such  harrows  as  have  bands  of  iron 
near  the  ends  of  each  arm.  To  avoid  injuring  trees,  Mon- 
roe's Rotary  Harrow  will  be  found  an  excellent  implement 
for  harrowing  orchards,  with  which  it  is  almost  hnpractica- 
ble  to  injure  a  young  tree  when  the  implement  is  drawn 
past  it,  as  the  point  of  the  harrow  that  might  come  in  con- 
tact with  the  tree  will  remain  stationary  against  the  bark 
until  the  implement  has  passed  so  far  along  that  every  part 


150  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

will  move  away  from  the  tree,  leaving  it  uniDJured.  If  this 
harrow  had  no  other  points  of  superior  excellence,  orchard- 
ists  would  do  well  to  keep  one  expressly  for  working  among 
fruit-trees.  But  it  ha%been  in  us*e  for  so  long  a  period,  that 
tillers  of  the  soil  are  familiar  with  its  great  superiority  for 
all  kinds  of  harrowing,  and  especially  for  harrowing  in  ce- 
real grain. 

Cultivating  Young  Orchards. — One  of  the  most  efficient 
implements  for  this  purpose  is  represented  by  Fig.  66,  the 

Fig.  66. 


Nishwitz's  disk  scarifier. 

pulverizers  of  which  consist  of  several  sharp-edged  circular 
disks  about  one  foot  in  diameter,  being  concave  on  one 
side  and  convex  on  the  other.  When  the  wheels  or  disks 
are  cast,  a  round  steel  pin,  about  three  fourths- of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  is  inserted  in  the  mould,  thus  furnishing  a  steel 
journal  for  each  disk.  A  bolt,  with  a  nut  at  the  upper  end, 
is  passed  through  a  socket-standard,  which  holds  the  disks 
in  their  position.  When  the  scarifier  is  in  use,  the  disks 
are  set  at  any  desired  angle  to  the  line  of  draught,  and  each 
disk  thus  pulverizes  and  turns  over  a  narrow  furrow-slice. 
I'he  disks  operate  by  cutting,  lifting,  and  turning  over  a 
few  inches  in  depth  of  the  entire  surfa'be  of  the  land. 
Wherever  it  has  been  thoroughly  tested,  this  implement 
has  given  excellent  satisfaction  as  a  scarifier,  or  as  an  imple- 
ment for  covering  seed-grain.     The  wooden  frame  consists 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  OECHARDS.  151 

of  two  pieces  of  hard,  tough  timber,  about  two  inches  iu 
thickness  by  seven  or  eight  inches  wide,  held  in  position  by 
the  cross-bar,  which  is  firmly  bolted  to  the  side  pieces.  By 
taking  out  the  bolts  which  secure  the  cross-bar,  the  wings 
can  be  spread  farther  apart  or  brought  nearer  together,  as 
represented  by  the  cut,  copied,  by  permission,  from  the  cat- 
alogue of  agricultural  implements  of  the  "  Peekskill  Plough 
Works,"  Peekskill,  New  York. 

Advantage  of  Working  the  Surface. — When  ground  is 
ploughed  in  the  former  part  of  the  growing  season,  and  the 
surface  is  cultivated  or  worked  with  a  gang-plough  every 
two  weeks  during  the  summer,  the  substratum  will  be  kept 
so  moist  that  the  roots  of  growing  trees  will  spread  with 
far  greater  rapidity  than  it  would  be  possible  for  them  to 
extend  if  the  ground  were  more  dry  and  hard.  Every  ob- 
serving tiller  of  the  soil  knows  that  ground  on  which  wheat, 
oats,  or  grass  is  growing,  during  hot  and  dry  weather  will 
often  be  as  dry  as  ashes,  while  the  same  kind  of  soil  by  the 
side  of  it,  which  is  being  summer-fallowed,  will  be  quite 
damp.  The  leaves  of  the  growing  crop  pump  up  and  evap- 
orate the  moisture  in  the  ground.  By  summer-fallowing 
the  ground  where  young  apple-trees  are  growing,  the  entire 
plot  is  kept  moist,  and  as  soft  as  the  ground  was  early  in 
the  spring.  Of  course  soft  and  damp  ground — not  wet  land 
— in  hot  weather,  greatly  promotes  a  healthy  growth  of  the 
trees,  so  that  in  many  instances  young  apple-trees  will  grow, 
where  the  soil  is  thoroughly  worked,  twice  as  rapidly  as  if  a 
crop  of  grain  or  grass  were  cultivated  on  the  same  ground. 

We  have  heard  "gentlemen  farmers"  contend  earnestly 
that  a  crop  of  grass,  and  even  a  heavy  crop  of  weeds,  will 
operate  in  a  most  favorable  manner  in  dry  and  hot  weath- 
er towards  keeping  the  ground  damp  by  the  shade  of  the 
leaves  and  branches.  If  the  growing  plants  did  not  pump 
up  immense  quantities  of  water,  their  reasoning  would  be 


152  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

sound.  Frequent  working  of  the  soil  in  hot  weather  greatly 
augments  its  capacity  to  condense  moisture  from  the  at- 
mosphere, and  to  retain  it  after  it  has  been  absorbed.  Cul- 
tivation is  essential  to  the  thrifty  growth  of  any  apple-tree. 
The  difference  between  the  size  of  trees  when  cultivated, 
at  the  end  of  five  years,  and  of  those  allowed  to  stand  in 
grass,  will  be  greatly  in  favor  of  the  former.  It  is  not  the 
land  we  wish  to  improve,  but  the  tree ;  it  is  not  potatoes 
and  beans  we  desire  to  raise,  but  to  fit  the  soil  in  such  man- 
ner that  hereafter  it  will  give  food  enough  to  the  tree  to 
enable  it  to  raise  large  crops  of  apples.  Every  tree  should 
be  tilled  like  a  hill  of  corn  or  potatoes.  Yearly,  as  the 
roots  extend,  a  wider  space  around  the  trunk  should  be  cul- 
tivated. The  whole  ground  should  be  spaded  and  hoed, 
mulched  and  manured,  or  scarified  from  row  to  row. 

Ridging  Fruit-orchards. — The  aim  should  always  be  to 
keep  the  surface  of  the  ground  as  level  as  a  lawn.  Apple- 
trees  should  never  be  "  earthed  up,"  as  is  sometimes  done, 
by  ploughing  the  ground  in  ridges,  and  turning  the  fur- 
rows at  every  ploughing  towards  the  trees.  J.  W.  Clarke, 
of  Wisconsin,  gave  an  account  recently  of  the  fatal  injury 
to  a  young  orchard  on  a  farm  which  he  had  recently  pur- 
chased. He  says  that,  "the  owner  having  left  the  State, 
the  land  was  rented  to  three  or  four  successive  tenants,  and 
each  one  took  the  easiest  way  to  plough  the  ground ;  and, 
as  the  result  proved,  the  surest  to  destroy  the  trees.  At 
every  ploughing,  for  five  years,  the  ground  was  ridged  up 
against  the  trees,  so  that  when  I  took  possession  the  stems 
were  earthed  up,  on  an  average,  eighteen  inches,  and  some 
of  them  considerably  more,  above  the  depth  they  were  set, 
and  of  course  above  that  at  which  they  stood  in  the  nursery." 

"The  result  was  that,  between  1857  and  1861,  one-half  the 
trees  were,  half  rotted  through,  above  the  general  level  of 
the  ground,  but  below  the  tops  of  the  ridges,  which  stupid 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  ORCHARDS.  153 

laziness  had  formed ;  over  two  hundred  fine  young  trees 
were  rotted,  broken  off,  and  destroyed  by  the  tenants  in 
that  heedless  fashion." 

The  probabihty  is,  that  most  of  those  trees  had  been 
badly  wounded  with  ploughs  and  harrows,  which  injured 
them  more  than  the  ridges.  Nevertheless,  it  is  an  injuri- 
ous practice  to  increase  the  depth  of  the  soil  near  young 
trees  to  any  considerable  extent. 

Mulching  Material  for  Apple-trees.  —  Doubtless  many 
persons  have  noticed  how  much  more  productive  an  apple- 
tree  seemed  to  be,  when  the  surface  of  the  ground  round 
about  was  covered  with  chips,  or  chip-dirt  so  thick  as  to 
kill  vegetation.  Tan-bark  and  sawdust  will  subserve  the 
same  purpose.  If  those  persons  who  live  near  tan-works 
or  saw-mills  would  get  the  tan-bark  and  sawdust,  and  mulch 
the  trees  every  year,  or  every  second  year,  and  pile  on  both 
coal  ashes  and  wood  ashes,  they  would  soon  have  abundance 
of  choice  fruits,  as  well  as  thrifty  trees.  There  is  too  much 
of  our  woody  material  allowed  to  waste,  which,  if  applied 
to  lands  on  which  trees  are  grown,  either  fruit  or  orna- 
mental, would  soon  show  its  beneficial  effects.  It  is  folly 
to  think  of  raising  a  bountiful  crop  of  grass  or  grain  near 
apple-trees,  and  to  get  an  abundant  crop  of  fine  fruit  at  the 
same  time.  The  mulching  material  can  be  applied  in  the 
winter,  when  laborers  and  teams  have  little  to  do.  It  will 
pay  well  to  haul  tan-bark,  sawdust  and  planing-mill  shav- 
ings two  or  more  miles,  when  a  large  load  can  be  carried, 
for  the  especial  purpose  of  scattering  it  round  about  fruit- 
trees,  unless  trees  are  standing  on  a  deep  and  fertile  soil, 
so  abundantly  supplied  with  fruit-producing  material,  that 
nothing  more  is  required.  It  will  pay  to  spread  coal  ashes 
round  about  trees  so  abundantly  that  no  grass  or  weeds  can 
come  up  through  the  ashes.  Any  kind  of  straw,  leaves, 
wild  grass,  sedge,  or  flags,  may  often   be   employed   for 

V* 


154 


THE  APPLE  CULTUMIST. 


AUTUMN    8TRAVVUERKY. 


Fruit,  medium,  roundish,  slightly  conical,  nearly  the  whole  surface  covered  with 
bright  red  streaks  on  yellow  ground ;  stalk,  slender,  about  an  inch  long ;  basin, 
ribbed;  flesh,  yellow,  very  tender  and  juicy,  with  a  fine  sub-acid  flavor.  Tree, 
thrifty.  Ripens  early  in  autumn,  and  keeps  well.  Very  productive ;  one  of  the 
best  early  autumn  apples. 


mulching  young  apple-trees.  On  light  and  sandy  soil,  it 
would  be  an  excellent  plan  to  spread  two  or  three  tons  of 
clay  round  about  each  tree.  Then,  after  the  frost  and  rains 
of  winter  had  thoroughly  pulverized  the  clay,  let  it  be  fork- 
ed into  the  sand.  After  which,  apply  a  dressing  of  mulch. 
When  mulch  is  applied  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  let  it 
be  spread  over  the  surface  barely  thick  enough  to  prevent 
grass  growing.  A  thin  mulch  will  keep  the  soil  moist, 
when  without  it  the  surface  would  be  as  dry  as  dust. 
Five  dollars'  worth  of  mulch  will  often  save  ten  dollars' 
worth  of  labor  in  hoeing  and  watering  plants.  Many  peo- 
ple remove  all  the  weeds  and  grass  to  the  street,  when  such 
things  should  be  spread  around  growing  vegetables  or  trees. 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  OMCHABDS.  155 

By  many  beginners,  who  do  not  understand  how  to  ap- 
ply mulch,  a  small  heap  of  material  is  piled  up  close  to 
the  foot  of  the  tree,  without  one  moment's  reflection  as  to 
the  position  of  the  roots  that  need  the  benefit.  Now  it 
may  be  laid  down  as  a  rule  which  is  not  far  from  being 
correct,  that  the  length  of  the  roots  which  radiate  on  all 
sides  from  the  base  of  an  apple-tree  is  about  equal  to  the 
height  of  the  tree  itself.  If,  for  example,  a  young  fruit- 
tree  is  ten  feet  high,  then  we  may  infer  that  the  roots  form 
a  circle  about  twenty  feet  in  diameter,  the  base  of  the  tree 
constituting  the  centre.  Over  this  gi'eat  surface,  the  finer 
and  more  inconspicuous  roots  form  a  net- work  of  fibres; 
and  to  derive  full  benefit  from  manure,  cultivation,  and 
mulching,  a  broad  space  of  ground  must  be  covered  with 
manure  and  mulch. 

Wood  Ashes  for  Apple-trees. — Many  of  my  readers,  doubt- 
less, can  recollect  instances  where  a  fruit-tree  has  stood  near 
a  large  heap  of  leached  ashes;  and  sometimes  the  ashes 
have  been  thrown  out  of  the  leach  for  several  years,  so  that 
every  noxious  weed  and  grass  has  been  killed  by  the  lib- 
eral top-dressing  of  wood  ashes.  But  the  fruit  that  was 
produced  on  the  tree  near  the  ashes  was  always  plump  and 
smooth.  I  well  remember,  when  a  small  lad,  that  there 
were  two  peach-trees  near  my  father's  leach,  around  which 
the  leached  ashes  had  destroyed  all  vegetation;  and  the 
old  trees  seemed  to  chng  to  life  with  the  desperation  of  a 
drowning  man.  But  the  fruit  was  always  large,  and  very 
smooth  and  luscious,  as  long  as  there  was  sufficient  vitality 
in  the  last  twig  to  produce  a  fruit-bud.  This  fact  assured 
me  that  fruit-trees  require  wood  ashes.  Consequently,  after 
I  commenced  operations  on  my  own  farm,  every  bushel  of 
ashes  was  spread  around  fruit-trees ;  and  many  loads  were 
hauled  five  miles  to  be  scattered  around  fruit-trees.  The 
result  was,  that  in  after  years,  when  fruit-trees  in  all  that 


156  THE  APPLE  VULTURIST. 

vicinity  yielded  scarcely  a  family  supply  of  fruit,  my  trees, 
that  had  been  top-dressed  with  ashes,  bore  bountiful  crops 
of  smooth  fruit.  I  have  in  mind  several  old  trees  which 
would  yield  annual  crops  of  small,  gnarly,  knotty,  rusty, 
one-sided  fruit  of  little  value,  until  after  I  had  made  a  port- 
able pen,  about  eighteen  feet  square,  around  each  tree,  in 
which  two  fattening  shotes  were  kept,  about  two  weeks  per 
tree,  until  they  had  rooted  up  every  inch  of  the  turf  and 
destroyed  the  grass.  Then  several  bushels  of  unleached 
wood  ashes  were  scattered  around  those  trees,  as  far  as  the 
roots  extended.  The  result  was,  bountiful  crops  of  plump 
and  smooth  fruit  every  succeeding  season;  and  I  meet 
with  farmers  every  year  who  tell  me  that  their  apple-trees 
and  Vergalieu  pear-trees  which  stand  near  their  leach,  and 
that  have  been  top-dressed  with  ashes,  yield  bountiful  crops 
of  luscious  fruit ;  while  the  same  kind  of  trees  near  by,  that 
have  not  been  supplied  with  ashes,  seem  to  be  failing ;  and 
the  fruit  on  them  is  rusty,  one-sided,  and  very  inferior.  I 
once  had  an  Early  Harvest  apple-tree  that  always  yielded 
small,  knotty,  and  cracked  fruit,  until  a  few  bushels  of  un- 
leached ashes  were  spread  about  it,  after  which  the  fruit 
was  superb. 

Bones  for  Apple-trees.  —  There  is  no  more  valuable  fer- 
tilizer for  apple-trees  on  most  soils  than  bones,  and  the  flesh 
of  animals  and  fish.  It  has  been  recorded  by  reliable  au- 
thority that  near  the  graves  of  Roger  Williams,  the  founder 
of  Rhode  Island,  and  his  wife,  there  stood  a  venerable  apple- 
tree  which  had  sent  two  of  its  roots  into  the  graves  of  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  Williams.  The  larger  root  had  pushed  its  way 
through  the  earth  till  it  reached  the  precise  spot  occupied 
by  the  skull  of  Roger  Williams.  There,  making  a  turn,  as 
if  going  round  the  skull,  it  followed  the  direction  of  the 
backbone  to  the  hips.  Here  it  divided  into  two  branches, 
sending  one  of  them  along  each  leg  to  the  heel,  where  both 


GENERAL  3IANAGEMENT  OF  ORCHAMD^.  157 

turned  upward  to  the  toes.  One  of  these  roots  formed  a 
slight  crook  at  the  knee,  which  made  the  whole  bear  close 
resemblance  to  a  human  form.  There  were  the  graves, 
emptied  of  eveiy  particle  of  human  dust.  .  Not  a  trace  of 
any  thing  was  left.  There  stood  the  guilty  "  apple-tree," 
as  it  was  said  at  the  time,  caught  in  the  very  act  of  "  rob- 
bing the  grave."  The  fact  proved  conclusively  that  bones, 
even  of  human  beings,  are  an  excellent  fertilizer  for  fruit- 
trees  ;  and  the  fact  must  be  admitted  that  the  organic  mat- 
ter of  Roger  WiUiams  had  been  transmitted  into  the  apple- 
tree  ;  it  had  passed  into  the  woody  fibre,  and  was  capable 
of  propelling  a  steam-engine ;  it  had  bloomed  in  the  apple- 
blossoms,  and  had  become  pleasant  to  the  eye ;  and  more, 
it  had  gone  into  the  fruit  from  year  to  year,  so  that  the 
question  might  be  asked,  Who  ate  Roger  Williams  ? 

It  is  known  to  chemists  that  all  flesh,  and  the  gelatinous 
matter  giving  consistency  to  the  bones,  are  resolved  into 
carbonic  acid  gas,  water,  and  air,  during  decomposition, 
while  the  solid  lime-dust  usually  remains.  But  in  this  case, 
even  the  phosphate  of  lime  of  the  bones  of  both  the  graves 
was  all  gone.  In  the  same  manner,  all  kinds  of  bones, 
when  buried  near  growing  vines  and  trees,  will  be  literal- 
ly devoured  by  the  hungry  roots;  and  the  once  beautiful 
forms  that  lived  and  moved  will  be  transformed  into  lus- 
cious food,  to  maintain  others  who  may  exist  hereafter. 

Scraping  the  Bodies  of  Apple-trees.— This  practice  is  re- 
peatedly recommended  as  an  important  means  of  producing 
a  fine  crop  of  fruit.  But  v/e  can  conceive  of  no  practical 
advantage  in  scraping  old  trees  so  thoroughly  as  to  remove 
all  the  shaggy  and  dead  bark,  except  to  destroy  insects, 
their  eggs,  and  their  refuges.  The  rough  and  shaggy  bark 
of  an  apple-tree  will  be  found  advantageous  to  the  health 
and  productiveness  of  a  tree,  as  the  covering  is  provided  by 
nature  for  their  protection  against  the  adverse  influences  of 


158  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

climate,  and  for  maintaining  in  even  balance  that  degree  of 
warmth  most  favorable  to  the  healthy  exercise  of  their  vital 
functions ;  and  perhaps  the  fact  is  not  sufficiently  realized 
how  admirably  suited  this  external  covering  is  for  such  a 
purpose.  Wood,  in  the  direction  of  across  the  grain,  is  a 
non-conductor  of  heat  in  an  eminent  degree ;  and  the  outer 
layers  of  bark  are  even  greatly  more  so.  Hence  we  would 
never  advocate  the  practice  of  scraping  the  bodies  of  fruit- 
trees  simply  to  promote  their  fruitfulness.  The  practice 
promotes  no  such  end.  When  the  bodies  of  trees  are 
scraped,  the  denuded  parts  should  be  protected  with  a  coat 
of  pitch  and  tallow.  (See  p.  159  for  a  cut  of  a  tree-scrap- 
er.) The,  chief  reason  urged  in  support  of  the  practice  is, 
that  it  lightens  the  trees  of  a  load  of  dead  and  useless  mat- 
ter which  can  not  be  of  further  benefit ;  but,  on  the  contra- 
ry, when  allowed  to  remain,  it  is  only  a  harbor  for  insect 
enemies,  and  for  the  growth  of  moss  and  lichens.  It  is 
doubtless  true  that  the  depredations  of  insects  have  been 
lessened  by  the  process.  But  as  for  lichens,  we  are  at  a 
loss  to  understand  how  they  can  be  hurtful  to  trees;  for, 
although  growing  upon  them,  they  live  exclusively  upon 
food  drawn  from  the  atmosphere.  It  is  not  claimed  that 
trees  derive  any  benefit  from  those  epiphytes,  unless  in  bleak 
and  exposed  situations  they  supplement  the  bark  in  afford- 
ing protection.  But  when  found  in  excess  upon  apple  or 
pear  trees  of  immature  age,  they  may  be  accepted  as  a  sign 
that,  from  some  cause  or  other,  those  trees  are  not  in  such 
satisfactory  condition  as  could  be  desired.  Want  of  thrift- 
iness  in  trees  favors  the  growth  of  lichens ;  and  this  may  be 
induced  by  a  variety  of  causes,  either  singly  or  in  combina- 
tion, such  as  impoverishment  of  the  soil,  want  of  drainage, 
or  exposure  to  the  rigors  of  a  severe  and  variable  climate. 

The  long  strips  of  dead  bark  hanging  from  the  bodies  of 
large  hickory-trees  are  of  more  service  than  injury.     In  no 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  ORCHARDS.  159 

supposable  case  need  the  pomologist  hope  to  better  his  pros- 
pects by  the  use  of  a  scraping-knife;  for,  from  whatever 
cause  trees  cease  to  increase  perceptibly  in  diameter,  out- 
side appliances  can  no  more  impart  fresh  vigor  to  them, 
than  the  under-fed  and  over-driven  roadster,  all  of  whose 
bones  stick  out,  can  be  made  sleek  and  fat  by  the  use  of  the 
curry-comb,  so  long  as  generous  feeding,  careful  driving, 
and  a  good  stable  are  ignored.  In  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
the  fitting  of  means  to  ends  is  so  close  and  intimate  as  not 
to  be  safely  disturbed ;  while,  at  the  same  time,  they  seem  to 
Fig.  67.  indicate  that  the  practice  we  oppose  is  out  of 
harmony  with  the  plans  and  purposes  of  nature. 
Hence,  when  we  remove  the  dead  bark  of  an 
apple-tree,  we  should  first  understand  what  the 
effect  is  to  be  on  the  tree.  We  would  never 
scrape  or  shave  off  the  dead  bark  without  being 
able  to  tell  how  the  operation  will  promote  fruit- 
fulness.  So  long  as  a  tree  continues  to  yield 
fair  crops  of  apples,  the  bark  should  not  be 
tampered  with.  Fig.  67  represents  a  scraper 
of  convenient  form,  which  consists  of  a  trian- 
gular piece  of  steel,  about  three  inches  from 
corner  to  corner,  with  the  edges  ground  or  filed 
sharp  for  scraping.  A  stiff  broad  hoe  may  be 
Tree-scraper,      employed  instead  of  such  a  scraper. 

The  editor  of  the  Practical  Farmer,  Philadelphia,  says : 

"  Some  over-wise  people  have  an  idea  that  when  a  tree  gets  mossy  and  bark- 
bound— the  latter  but  another  term  for  the  want  of  growth  and  weakness  conse- 
quent upon  neglected  cultivation— it  is  only  necessary  to  slit  the  bark  up  and  down 
the  stem  with  a  jacknife,  and  it  will  at  once  spread  out  and  grow.  This  is  sheer 
nonsense.  Dig  about  and  cultivate  the  roots,  and  the  bark  will  take  care  of  itself, 
with  a  scraping  oflF  of  the  moss,  and  a  washing  of  the  stem  with  ley  or  soap-suds, 
or  chamber-slops,  which  last  is  quite  as  good.  The  increased  flow  of  the  sap,  in- 
duced by  a  liberal  feeding  of  the  roots,  will  do  its  ovm  bursting  of  the  '  hide- 
bound '  'bark,  which  is  simply  its  enfeebled  condition  as  a  consequence  of  its  pov- 
erty of  root.  No  one  thinks  of  turning  out  a  bony,  half-starved  calf  in  the  spring, 
iato  the  clover-field,  with  the  skin  on  its  sides  all  split  through  with  a  knife,  in  or- 
der to  add  to  its  growth.  And  this  last  proposition  is  quite  as  sensible  and  phil- 
osophical as  the  other.    Nature  takes  care  of  itself  in  these  particulars.    Sap  iu 


160  THE  APPLE  CULTUMIST. 

plenty  is  what  the  blood  is  to  animals.  Its  vigorous  flow  reaches  every  part  of  its 
composition,  and  gives  to  each  its  proper  play  and  function.  We  can  show  fre- 
quent instances  of  a  decrepit  shrivelled  branch,  by  the  throwing  open  and  manur- 
ing of  the  roots,  and  a  thorough  pruning  of  the  whole  top,  increasing  from  an  inch 
to  two  inches  diameter  in  a  single  season,  and  without  assistance,  as  it  grew, 
bursting  and  throwing  off  its  old  contracted  bark  as  freely  as  the  growth  of  a 
vigorous  asparagus-shoot  would  develop  itself  during  a  warm  shower  in  May. 
Such  nostrums  are  only  the  invention  of  the  head  to  excuse  the  laziness  of  the 
hands." 

Girdling  and  Peeling  Trees. — During  the  former  part  of 
summer,  and  sometimes  as  late  as  the  first  of  August,  the 
bodies  of  apple-trees  may  often  be  denuded  of  every  parti- 
cle of  bark,  from  the  ground  to  the  branches,  with  excel- 
lent effect,  in  some  instances,  on  the  productiveness  of  the 
tree.  But  such  an  operation  must  not  be  performed  too 
early,  nor' too  late  in  the  growing  season.  There  must  be 
a  liberal  supply  of  cambium,  or  new  wood  in  a  semi-fluid 
condition,  between  the  old  bark  and  the  wood.  Then,  if 
the  old  bark  be  removed,  the  cambium  will  form  a  new 
coating  of  bark,  instead  of  another  concentric  ring  of  new 
wood.  We  have  frequently  seen  apple-trees  completely 
stripped  of  the  bark,  clear  up  among  the  limbs.  On  such 
trees,  before  the  end  of  the  growing  season,  a  smooth  and 
thick  bark  had  been  formed,  wherever  the  old  bark  had 
been  disturbed. 

The  object  in  view  is,  to  promote  fruitfulness.  In  many 
instances, "  ringing  "  the  body  of  a  tree,  or  the  main  branch- 
es, by  removing  a  strip  of  bark  quite  around  them,  half 
an  inch  or  an  inch  wide,  will  have  the  desired  effect.  In 
some  instances,  a  sharp  knife  has  simply  been  run  around 
the  limb,  cutting  through  the  bark,  without  removing  any 
portion.  Ringing  of  branches  will  sometimes  promote  ear- 
ly maturity.  We  have  often  seen  branches  loaded  with 
mature  fruit,  more  than  a  week  previous  to  the  time  of  ri- 
pening of  the  same  kind  of  fruit  on  other  branches  of  the 
same  tree.  Then,  again,  we  have  ringed  branches  with  our 
own  knife,  and  no  effect  whatever  could  be  perceived  in 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  ORCHARD  161 

the  productiveness  of  the  branches,  or  early  maturity  of 
the  fruit. 

The  philosophy  of  ringing  branches,  or  peeling  off  the 
bark  to  promote  fructification,  consists  in  this :  that  the  op- 
eration retards  the  growth  of  the  branches,  which  tends  to 
promote  fruitfulness.  But  some  of  our  most  reliable  po- 
mologists  contend  that  all  such  operations  are  highly  inju- 
rious to  the  trees,  because  they  are  unnatural.  We  would 
not  advise  the  practice,  except  when  the  bark  is  old  and 
the  trees  "  bark-bound." 

Thinning  out  young  Fruit.— This  is  a  practice  that  has 
numerous  advocates,  and  only  a  limited  number  to  practise 
it.  Ever  since  we  commenced  the  cultivation  of  fruit-trees 
and  grape-vines,  we  have  not  failed  to  thin  out  the  fruit — 
especially  of  young  trees — with  as  much  care  as  the  same 
trees  were  pruned.  When  young  apple-trees  or  pear-trees 
have  been  covered  with  blossoms,  and  a  sufficient  number  of 
specimens  have  set  to  make  several  quarts  of  fruit,  our  prac- 
tice has  ever  been  to  clip  off  all  but  three  or  four  specimens, 
particularly  if  the  branches  of  the  trees  were  growing  slowly. 
It  is  exceedingly  detrimental  to  young  trees  to  be  allowed 
to  mature  much  fruit  while  they  are  growing  vigorously. 

The  most  convenient  instrument  for  thinning  out  fruit 
is  a  small  pair  of  sharp  shears,  with  w^hich  to  cut  the  stems. 
One  man  will  be  able  to  thin  out  the  fruit  on  a  large  num- 
ber of  trees  in  a  day,  if  he  can  handle  his  shears  with  facil- 
ity. When  the  young  fruit  hangs  in  clusters,  always  cut 
out  the  poorest  specimens.  Do  not  be  chicken-hearted 
about  such  a  job,  although  it  appears  terribly  destructive 
to  your  crop  of  fruit.  Faint-hearted  women  will  hold  their 
breath  at  the  sight,  and  even  venture  to  scream  as  the 
young  fruit  falls.  But  act  the  part  of  a  wise  and  skillful 
pomologist,  and  thin  out  all  the  clusters.  The  crop  will 
certainly  be  more  abundant,  and  more  valuable  also. 


162  THE  APPLE  CULTUBIST. 

Hon.  M.  P.  Wilder,  President  of  the  American  Pomolog- 
ical  Society,  says  that 

"  One  of  the  most  important  lessons  which  experience  has  taught  us,  is  the  neces- 
sity of  thinning  oar  crops  of  fruit ;  and  no  operation,  in  the  whole  round  of  fruit 
culture,  has  been  so  much  neglected.  It  is  not  strange  that  the  young  cultivator, 
delighted  with  a  fine  show  of  large  pears  on  a  young  tree,  or  an  abundant  crop  of 
grapes  on  a  young  vine,  should,  in  the  pride  of  his  heart—and  not  knowing  the 
impossibility  of  the  tree  or  vine  bringing  them  all  to  maturity  without  a  tax  on 
its  vital  powers,  of  which  the  eflFect  may  be  felt  for  years— permit  them  to  remain. 
It  is  true  that  the  labor  is  great,  but  so  is  the  profit ;  and  oftentimes  it  happens 
that  the  labor  of  thinning  a  crop  makes  all  the  diflference  between  absolute  un- 
salableness  and  a  high  price  in  the  market.  Not  unfrequently  a  pear-tree  will  set 
so  much  fruit  that  it  can  not  bring  any  part  of  the  crop  to  a  size  which  will  render 
it  salable  in  a  crowded  market,  when,  if  one-half,  or  even  a  larger  part,  of  the 
fruit  had  been  removed,  the  remaining  specimens  would  have  sold  quickly  at  the 
top  prices  of  the  market.  One  of  our  farmers,  near  Boston,  always  thins  his 
fruit ;  another,  adjoining  his  orchard,  neglects  it.  The  location  and  treatment  of 
these  two  orchards,  in  other  respects,  are  much  the  same ;  but  the  former  realizes 
for  his  crop  of  Baldwin  apples  about  four  dollars  and  a  half  per  barrel,  while  the 
latter,  standing  by  his  side  in  the  market,  receives  less  than  three  dollars  and  a 
half  for  his.  The  case  is  still  stronger  with  the  pear,  which,  growing  on  smaller 
trees,  is  more  easily  thinned ;  and  the  prices  obtained  for  the  fruit  afi'ord  a  better 
remuneration  for  the  labor  of  thinning.  While  those  properly  thinned  and  cared 
for  will  command  four  dollars  per  bushel,  those  of  the  common  run  will  not  bring 
more  than  two  dollars ;  and  this  rule  applies  not  only  to  fruits,  but  to  all  vegeta- 
ble productions.  Every  one  has  observed  that  the  overbearing  of  a  fruit-tree  one 
year  is  likely  to  result  in  barrenness  the  next.  Hence  the  necessity  of  thinning 
our  fruits,  so  as  to  avoid  exhaustion  of  the  tree,  and  to  keep  up  a  regular  succes- 
sion of  good  fruit.  Even  the  Baldwin  apple,  which,  from  its  great  productive- 
ness, bears  only  on  alternate  years,  we  think,  might,  by  thinning,  be  made  to  bear 
annual  crops.  Not  merely  the  form,  but  the  color,  is  improved  by  thinning  ;  for 
without  sunlight  fruit  can  never  attain  perfect  color.  "When  apples  are  crowded 
in  clusters,  they  are  particularly  liable  to  be  attacked  by  disease  ;  and  therefore 
the  neceseity,  if  we  wish  perfect  specimens,  for  removing  a  part,  so  that  no  two 
fruits  shall  touch  each  other.  This  necessity  is  especially  strong  in  the  case  of 
the  peach  and  plum,  and  early  apples,  where  rot  is  liable  to  be  communicated  by 
contact.  These  should  be  so  severely  thinned,  when  young,  as  to  make  it  certain 
that  they  will  not  touch  each  other  when  fully  grown. " 

Making  Letters  on  Growing  Apples. — ^It  is  a  curious  fact, 
which  many  pomologists  will  doubtless  be  glad  to  know, 
that  a  person  may  produce  his  name  in  beautiful  letters  in 
the  skin  of  an  apple,  thus  :  Cut  paper  letters  out  of  a  news- 
paper, say  one-fourth  of  an  inch  square,  spread  a  coat  of 
mucilage  on  one  side  of  each  letter,  and  stick  the  letters  on 
the  surface  of  an  apple  that  is  growing  in  the  sunlight.  The 
letters  should  be  put  on  before  the  apples  have  turned  red. 
In  ten  to  twenty  days  the  apple  will  be  red,  except  beneath 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  ORCHARDS.  163 

the  letters,  which  will  be  of  a  light  color.  After  the  apple 
is  done  growing,  the  paper  may  be  removed,  and  the  letters 
or  figures  will  remain  as  permanent  as  the  color  of  the  fruit. 
Many  a  person  would  be  delighted  with  the  idea  of  sending 
a  large  and  beautiful  apple  to  a  respected  friend  or  lover, 
with  his  or  her  name  in  beautiful  plano-relievo^  formed  on 
the  smooth  surface  of  a  ruby  apple  by  Dame  Nature's  own 
delicate  touch,  in  shades  and*  tints  of  unrivalled  beauty. 
Another  manner  of  recording  a  name  and  date  is  to  simply 
cut  through  the  skin  of  an  apple  in  the  shape  of  the  letters. 
A  name  may  also  be  made  by  punching  the  skin  with  a 
bodkin  in  the  form  of  letters.  The  wounds  will  heal  so  that 
the  scars  will  form  the  letters  of  the  name  intended. 

Preparation  of  Apple-trees  for  Winter. — In  some  instan- 
ces, when  an  apple  tree  is  standing  where  every  thing  favors 
a  luxuriant  growth,  the  branches  will  keep  green  until  cold 
weather  and  frost  has  destroyed  the  foliage.  A  strong, 
perfect,  and  healthful  animal  will  endure  the  rigors  of  our 
Northern  winters  with  far  less  injury  than  a  poor,  weak,  and 
half-grown  beast.  The  same  principle  will  be  found  to  hold 
good  in  the  management  of  apple-trees.  If  their  shoots 
and  buds  are  full  and  plump,  and  well  supplied  with  health- 
ful material  contributed  from  clean,  healthy  leaves,  the 
chemical  movements  which  attend  growth  will  assist  great- 
ly in  maintaining  the  tree  against  cold,  by  the  heat  which 
is  developed.  In  a  thin,  weakly  tree,  this  force  is  wanting. 
Hence  the  eminent  importance  of  watching  the  growth  of 
young  trees  early  in  autumn,  when  the  growth  is  rampant, 
for  the  purpose  of  clipping  the  extremities  of  luxuriant 
branches,  to  hasten  the  maturity  of  the  new  wood.  Untold 
numbers  of  valuable  fruit-trees  at  the  West  and  North-west 
have  been  lost  during  cold  weather,  from  no  other  cause 
than  the  one  here  alluded  to  —  luxuriant  growth  in  late 
autumn.      In  many  instances,  trees  have  grown  but  little 


164 


THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 


KHOI>E   I8LAN11   GEEENING. 

(Sywowyms.— Burlington  Greening,  Jersey  Greening,  Russine,  Grunling  von 
Rhode  Island,  and  Bell  Dubois.  The  fruit  is  large  and  roundish,  a  little  flat- 
tened, quite  regular,  but  often  obscurely  ribbed,  dark  green,  becoming  greenish- 
yellow  when  ripe,  sometimes  showing  a  dull  blush  near  the  stem.  The  flesh  is 
yellow,  fine-grained,  tender,  crisp,  with  an  abundance  of  rich,  slightly  aromatic, 
lively  acid  juice.  For  market  and  for  culinary  purposes,  it  has  few  superi- 
ors. Season  from  November  to  April.  The  tree  is  vigorous,  and  usually  hardy. 
At  the  South  the  fruit  is  said  to  drop  too  early  in  autumn  to  be  a  profitable 
apple. 


during  the  summer,  on  account  of  drought.  When  the 
autumn  months  have  been  exceedingly  favorable  for  the 
growth  of  all  kinds  of  trees,  and  when  young  branches  have 
continued  to  push  out  until  freezing,  weather  has  put  an 
end  to  all  vegetation,  if  trees  have  not  been  prepared  for 
winter,  of  course  many  of  them  must  be  utterly  destroyed 
by  the  cold. 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  ORCHARDS.  165 

Another  thing  in  preparing  apple-trees  to  endure  the 
winter  without  injury — in  addition  to  the  foregoing — is  a 
mulch  or  covering  for  the  surface,  with  some  vegetable  ma- 
terial in  a  state  of  decomposition,  which  will  shelter  the 
roots  and  impart  warmth,  evolved  by  its  slow  combustion ; 
and  the  more  valuable  this  mulch  will  be  if  nitrogenous 
matter  is  included,  as  in  stable  manure.  This  application  is 
of  vastly  more  benefit,  when  applied  in  the  autumn,  than  if 
left  till  spring,  not  only  on  account  of  the  shelter  it  affords, 
but  because  of  its  advancing  a  strong  growth  early  in  the 
spring,  which  becomes  well  ripened  before  winter ;  whereas, 
manure  applied  in  the  spring,  especially  if  raw,  often  does 
not  become  effective  until  late  in  the  season,  when  the  wood 
should  be  ripening  instead  of  growing.  A  ripe,  well-var- 
nished and  finished  coat  of  bark  is  to  the  tree  what  the  coat 
of  hair  is  to  the  animal ;  and  the  effect  of  a  small  break  or 
rent  in  it  shows  how  important  its  perfect  condition  is,  es- 
pecially that  of  its  outer  skin  or  epidermis.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  the  dark  only  ripens  well  in  full  light. 
Trees,  therefore,  must  have  their  wood  both  well  fed  and 
thoroughly  ripened,  or  they  will  not  possess  sufficient  vital- 
ity to  endure  the  extreme  cold  of  our  Northern  winters. 

Certain  writers  at  the  present  time  are  advocating  the 
efficacy  of  root-pruning  as  the  most  reliable  way  to  promote 
hardiness  during  the  winter.  But  it  will  be  found  that  by 
employing  such  an  instrument  as  is  illustrated  on  p.  133  to 
clip  the  terminal  shoots,  and  thus  induce  the  new  wood  to 
harden  before  cold  weather,  apple-trees  will  endure  the  cold 
more  satisfactorily  than  if  they  had  been  root-pruned. 

Protecting  Apple-trees  from  Stock  and  other  Animals.— 

If  cattle  and  horses  may  enter  to  crop, 

Young  trees  are  in  danger  of  losing  the  top. — Edwards. 

Horses  and  colts  will  nip  off  the  branches  and  gnaw  off 
the  bark  of  young  trees;   horned  cattle  will  browse  the 


166 


THE  APPLE  CULTUMIST. 


tender  twigs,  hook  the  tops,  and  break  the  stems  down  by 
rubbing  unceremoniously  against  the  bodies  of  young  trees ; 
and  sheep,  calves,  and  goats  will  frequently  gnaw  off  all  the 
bark  within  their  reach.  Horses,  mules,  and  neat-cattle 
should  never  be  allowed  to  run  loosely  in  a  young  orchard. 
Sheep  may  run  in  an  orchard  if  the  bodies  of  the  trees  are 
first  protected.  The  most  convenient  manner  of  protecting 
from  sheep,  goats,  calves,  rabbits,  and  mice,  is  to  procure 
strong,  coarse  paper,  or  some  coarse,  cheap  canvas ;  cut  it 
in  strips  of  the  right  breadth  to  wrap  around  the  tree,  and 
lap  not  less  than  two  inches.  If  a  piece  is  passed  twice 
around,  it  will  do  no  harm.  Then  secure  the  edge  by  driv- 
ing large  tack-nails  —  carpet-tacks  —  into  the  tree.  Then 
apply  a  coat  of  coal-tar  to  the  paper  or  cloth.  Such  cov- 
ering should  be  removed  during  the  summer.  We  have 
never  heard  of  a  protection  that  is  equal  to  this  for  cheap- 
ness and  efficiency.  Such  material  may  be  taken  off  the 
fore  part  of  every  summer,  and  kept  till  the  leaves  have 
fallen.  Small  nails  driven  into  a  tree  will  not  injure  it.  In 
many  localities,  when  snow  drifts  deep  around  trees,  rabbits 
will  run  on  the  surface  and  gnaw  the  bark,  if  not  protected 
five  or  six  feet  from  the  ground.  If  coal- 
tar  be  applied  to  the  bodies  of  young  trees, 
X\"^'^^^  there  is  danger  that  the  poisonous  mate- 
^.^v  ^/^  rial  in  it  will  injure  the  bark.  I  once  ap 
s/^v.V'!^--^^  plied  coal-tar  to  a  valuable  apple-tree  ten 
years  old ;  and  in  less  than  eight  months 
every  root  and  branch  was  killed  by  the 
tar. 

Fig..  68  represents  a  young  tree  having 
the  stem  wrapped  with  tarred  paper,  and  a 
mound  of  earth  cast  up  around  it,  to  turn 
Protected  from  mice,  away  field-mice.     When  a  mound  of  earth 

rabbits,  sheep,  and   .        ,"        t  ,         ^  .i       -.  j 

goats.  IS  placed  around  a  tree,  the  tarred  paper 


Fig.  68. 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  ORCHARDS.  167 

need  extend  only  two  or  three  inches  below  the  top  of  the 
mound. 

Trees  blown  over. — A  furious  wind  frequently  turns  a 
large  apple-tree  over,  or  blows  it  so  nearly  up  by  the  roots 
that  the  body  stands  at  an  angle  of  forty -five  degrees.  If  a 
tree  be  a  valuable  one,  it  may  be  straightened  up  at  a  small 
expense.  If  the  subsoil  is  compact  where  the  tree  stood,  let 
it  be  dug  up  and  thoroughly  pulverized,  the  deeper  the  bet- 
ter. Then  hitch  a  strong  rope  or  chain  to  another  tree  or 
post,  and  one  end  to  the  tree-top,  having  a  system  of  tackles 
between  the  tree  to  be  set  up  and  the  anchor-post.  Let  the 
rope  pass  over  the  top  of  two  poles,  bolted  together  in  the 
form  of  a  letter  A,  standing  near  the  tree  to  be  set  up. 
When  all  things  are  ready,  hitch  a  team  to  the  slack-rope 
of  the  tackles,  and  set  the  tree  up.  Let  the  top  be  held 
erect  until  it  is  secured  by  four  strong  guy-wires,  extending 
from  the  top  to  strong  stakes  of  durable  timber  set  firmly, 
three  feet  deep,  in  solid  ground.  After  two  years,  if  the 
soil  is  not  too  wet  and  compact,  the  new  roots  will  have 
taken  such  a  firm  hold  that  a  hurricane  could  not  blow  the 
tree  over. 

Manuring  Orchards.  —  The  land  where,  some  orchards 
are  growing  needs  to  be  well  manured  before  the  trees  are 
set  out;  and  the  surface  should  be  top-dressed  every  two 
years.  Any  thing  and  every  thing  may  be  spread  on  the 
surface.  Moderate  doses  of  lime,  more  generous  ones  of 
wood  ashes,  are  always  profitable.  Phosphates  of  all  kinds 
are  useful  if  buried  beneath  the  surface.  Even  Peruvian 
guano,  if  applied  at  all,  should  be  slightly  dug  in,  late  in 
the  fall,  so  as  to  become  thoroughly  divided  by  winter 
rains.  Good  barn-yard  manure  spread  over  the  surface  of 
the  ground  is  excellent.  But  coarse  organic  manure  should 
not  be  put  in  contact  with  the  roots  of  young  trees.  The 
more  offal  from  the  slaughter-house  one  has  to  put  around 


168  THE  APPLE  CULTUBIST. 

apple-trees,  the  more  scrapings  of  the  manure-yards,  the 
more  chip-dust,  the  more  fish,  flesh,  and  bones  of  dead  ani- 
mals, the  more  of  leather-shavings  and  hide-clippings,  horn 
piths  and  hoofs,  hair  and  old  plaster,  and  all  such  articles, 
the  better  it  will  be  for  the  growing  trees.  Apple-pomace, 
spread  say  one  inch  thick  around  a  large  tree,  will  be  found 
a  good  manure,  especially  for  old  trees.  If  applied  too 
bountifully,  pomace  will  kill  all  vegetation,  and  the  roots  of 
the  apple-trees.  My  father  was  accustomed  to  spread  pom- 
lace  about  three  inches  thick  over  Canada  thistles  and  el- 
der bushes ;  and  that  thin  top-dressing  would  destroy  every, 
root  of  every  plant — no  matter  what  it  was — clear  down 
through  the  subsoil.  Of  course,  if  pomace  be  applied  too 
bountifully,  it  will  kill  the  roots  of  apple-trees. 

Garbage  for  Apple-trees. — Many  of  our  most  successful 
pomologists  beheve  that  there  is  no  danger  of  applying  too 
much  manure  to  bearing  trees.  Their  fruit  shows  that 
such  a  theory  is  correct,  provided  fertilizing  material  of 
the  required  kind  is  employed.  Many  famihes  in  cities, 
villages,  and  even  in  the  country,  cast  away  enough  fertil- 
izing material  in  jone  year  to  equal  the  manurial  value  of 
several  tons  of  the  best  Peruvian  guano,  which  is  sold  to 
tillers  of  the  soil  for  about  eighty  dollars  per  ton.  Many  a 
family  throws  out  at  the  back  door  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
garbage  from  the  kitchen — consisting  of  apple-peelings,  po- 
tato-peelings, bits  of  meat  and  bread,  fragments  of  bones, 
feathers  of  fowls,  and  soap-suds — to  produce  all  the  fruit 
or  vegetables  that  the  same  family  would  consume,  if  such 
material  were  properly  applied  to  the  soil.  Many  families 
cast  into  the  garbage-barrel  more  than  five  pounds  of  pieces 
of  bread,  meat,  and  bones  every  day,  every  pound  of  which 
is  more  valuable  as  a  fertilizer  of  the  soil  than  a  pound 
of  guano.  Other  families  waste  several  barrels  of  soap  an- 
nually, every  gallon  of  which  is  of  more  value  to  spread 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  ORCHABDS.  169 

around  fruit-trees  than  a  pound  of  Peruvian  guano.  After 
a  box  of  hard  soap,  or  a  barrel  of  soft  soap,  has  been  dis- 
solved in  the  wash-bowl  or  wash-tub,  its  manurial  value 
still  remains  in  the  water;  and  the  fertilizing  material  is 
in  a  far  better  condition  to  feed  growing  plants  and  fruit- 
trees  than  before  the  soap  was  dissolved.  Every  barrel  of 
good  soap  is  worth  from  five  to  six  dollars  to  spread 
around  grape-vines  or  fruit-trees  of  any  kind,  as  soap  is  the 
choicest  quality  of  fertilizing  material  for  bearing  trees, 
and  even  for  flower-beds.  The  more  we  can  apply,  the 
more  productive  the  trees  and  the  soil  will  be. 

The  great  practical  point,  then,  will  be  how  to  save  it. 
In  our  own  kitchen  a  garbage-pail  is  provided,  into  which 
egg-shells,  apple-peelings,  fragments  of  beef,  mutton,  fish- 
bones, and  every  thing  of  this  character,  is  thrown;  and 
as  often  as  the  pail  is  half  filled,  the  contents  are  buried 
around  our  trees  or  grape-vines.  The  soap-suds  are  all  car 
ried  into  the  yard,  when  the  sun  does  not  shine,  and  poured 
around  trees,  vines,  flowers,  or  vegetables.  It  would  be  an 
excellent  practice  to  provide  a  large  tierce,  molasses-hogs- 
head, or  water-tight  box,  place  it  on  a  stone-boat,  like  Fig. 
69,  or  on  a  pair  of 
low  runners,  and  let 
it  stand  in  a  hollow 
a  few  rods  from  the 
kitchen,  where  it  could 
receive  all  the  dish-wa- 
ter and  soap-suds.  As 
soon  as  it  is  full,  let  a 

team  be  hitched  to  the  ^  liq^^id  fertUizer  apparatus. 

sled,  and  the  whole  drawn  to  the  fruit-yard,  or  to  a  lawn, 
where  the  contents  could  be  let  out  on  the  ground  in  a  few 
minutes  by  opening  a  valve,  or  withdrawing  a  large  plug 
near  the  lower  side.     Whoever  will  practise  this  mode  of 

8 


170  THE  APPLE  CULTUBIST. 

saving  and  applying  valuable  fertilizing  material  for  a  few 
years,  will  see  a  surprising  improvement  in  his  bearing 
trees,  grape-vines  or  grass -land,  where  such  substances 
were  distributed.  Better  manure  can  not  be  desired.  Be- 
sides this,  the  cost  of  it  is  comparatively  nothing. 

Under-draining  old  Orchards. — I  have  met  with  a  large 
number  of  old  orchards  in  New  England,  New  York,  Ohio, 
and  other  States,  many  of  the  trees  of  which  do  not  yield  a 
crop  of  any  value,  and  never  have,  on  account  of  the  excess 
of  water  in  the  soil.  And  yet  the  proprietors  of  those 
trees  are  looking  to  some  climatic  influence,  or  to  some 
"east-wind,"  or  to  a  degeneracy  in  the  variety,  as  the  cause, 
beyond  man's  control,  to  which  the  failure  of  fruit  must  be 
attributed,  when  the  cause  is  purely  local,  and  might  have 
been  removed  years  ago.  Old  apple-trees  will  not  flourish 
where  there  is  an  excess  of  water.  In  many  instances,  we 
have  observed  that  apple-trees  standing  where  the  soil  was 
kept  thoroughly  charged  with  water  late  in  autumn,  during 
the  winter,  and  for  two  months  in  the  spring,  would  be 
so  seriously  injured  that  they  could  not  recover  during  the 
summer.  When  the  pores  of  the  soil  are  all  filled  with 
water,  week  after  week,  instead  of  warm  air,  an  apple-tree 
can  not  thrive  luxuriantly,  nor  yield  satisfactory  crops  of 
fruit,  until  the  land  has  been  under-drained.     (See  p.  61.) 

Management  of  Dying  Trees. — It  would  be  folly  and  labor 
lost  to  attempt  to  rejuvenate  an  old,  dying  apple-tree.  There 
is  a  limit  to  the  duration  of  apple-trees,  as  well  as  to  human 
Hfe,  so  that,  after  an  apple-tree  has  been  dropping  a  branch 
here  and  there  for  several  years,  and  the  body  has  begun  to 
decay,  we  can  not  make  a  profitable  tree  of  it,  any  more 
than  an  old,  blind,  lame,  and  foundered  horse  can  be  re- 
juvenated. The  very  best  way  to  treat  such  trees  is  to 
dig  them  up,  and  start  another  tree  of  some  valuable  varie- 
ty where  the  old  one  stood.     Direct  the  digger  to  excavate, 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  ORCHAUDS.  I7l 

with  pick  and  shovel,  all  around  the  old  tree,  three  feet 
deep,  and  seven  feet  in  diameter,  cutting  off  the  roots  as 
he  digs.  Any  experienced  digger  will  sever  an  old  tree  in 
two  hours,  so  that  a  team  can  roll  it  away.  Let  such  work 
be  done  in  the  winter,  or  early  in  the  spring.  Then  the 
ground  will  be  in  readiness  for  a  young  tree.  As  the  old 
roots  decay,  the  new  roots  will  fill  their  places.  Should 
there  be  a  lack  of  apple-producing  material  in  the  soil,  it 
should  be  supplied.  Many  people  will  cling  to  an  old  ap- 
ple-tree so  long  as  it  will  yield  only  half  a  dozen  poor  apples, 
when  a  young  tree  would  produce  several  bushels  of  superb 
fruit. 

Forming  the  Tops  of  bearing  Apple-trees. — Fig.  70  repre- 
sents a  model  dwarf  apple-tree  having  a  conical  top.  (See 
definition  oi Pyramidalin  Glossary.)  In  order  to  produce 
a  true  top,  lash  a  small  pole  to  the  central  stem  of  the  tree, 
as  represented,  then  let  a  line  extend  from  the  top  of  the 
pole  to  the  end  of  a  sway-har,  one  end  of  which  is  scol- 
loped out  to  fit  the  body  of  the  tree.  Let  the  sway-bar  be 
of  sufiicient  length  to  carry  the  line  beyond  all  the  branches. 
Then,  with  the  pruner  (see  Fig.  60),  clip  off  the  ends  of  all 
the  branches  that  extend  beyond  the  line.  If  it  is  desirable 
to  form  a  round  head,  the  Hne  will  be  a  reliable  guide,  by 
clipping  off  the  ends  within  a  given  distance  of  the  line,  on 
every  side,  as  represented  by  the  diagram.  A  small  block 
tacked  to  the  tree  beneath  the  end  of  the  sway-bar  will 
keep  it  from  dropping  to  the  ground.  Such  a  device  will 
be  found  exceedingly  convenient  when  forming  tree-tops  of 
any  other  style. 

How  to  Spread  the  Tops  of  Trees. — It  seems  to  be  a  hab- 
it with  certain  trees  to  send  their  branches  more  erect  than 
in  a  horizontal  direction.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the 
Gravenstein  apple  and  Bartlett  pear-trees,  and  many  other 
varieties.     It  is  decidedly  objectionable  to  have  all  the  limbs 


172 


THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

Fig.  70. 


A  pruning-gauge,  to  aid  in  giving  ttie  top  a  conical  form. 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  ORCHARDS.  173 

shoot  upward,  forming  a  top  so  close  that  a  person  can  not 
ascend  between  the  limbs  to  pluck  the  fruit.  Moreover, 
the  fruit  will  be  fairer,  larger,  and  better,  if  the  branches 
grow  at  a  greater  distance  from  each  other,  so  as  to  let  in 
the  light  of  the  sun  and  admit  of  a  more  free  circulation  of 
air  through  the  dense  foliage  and  thickly-set  fruit.  When 
there  is  ample  space  between  the  trees,  fasten  horizontal 
spars  of  wood  to  the  main  stem  of  the  tree-top,  and  push 
the  limbs  outward  each  way  from  the  middle  of  the  top, 
and  tie  them  in  the  desired  position,  with  soft  strings,  to 
the  ends  of  the  horizontal  spars.  A  more  convenient  way 
will  be  to  pass  a  narrow  strip  of  leather  around  a  branch 
and  nail  it  to  the  wood.  The  limbs  may  be  fastened  in 
the  desired  position  by  such  means,  and  kept  there  for  one 
season,  when  they  will  remain  spread  out,  thus  rendering  it 
more  convenient  to  move  around  in  the  tree-top  when  prun- 
ing, thinning  the  fruit,  or  plucking  it.  In  some  instances, 
only  a  few  of  the  boughs  grow  erect  on  one  side  of  the  tree, 
which  may  be  thrust  outward  and  secured  by  sliort  spars  of 
wood  on  one  side  of  the  middle  of  tlie  tree-top.  If  no  animals 
are  allowed  to  run  in  the  orchardj  a  small  wire  may  be  se- 
cured to  a  limb,  and  fastened  to  a  stake  driven  in  the  ground. 

When  limbs  of  trees  have  been  bent  down  too  low  by 
any  means,  if  the  central  stem  is  sufficiently  stiff,  such  limbs 
may  be  elevated  and  wired-up  for  one  season,  after  which 
they  will  maintain  their  position.  Young  trees  require 
much  attention  when  growing,  to  make  every  branch  stand 
in  the  most  desirable  direction. 

Grass  in  Orchards. — One  pomologist  will  recommend  the 
culture  of  red  clover  or  grass,  where  a  young  orchard  is 
growing.  Another  will  denounce  the  practice  of  permit- 
ting grass  to  grow  among  trees  of  any  kind.  The  advo- 
cate for  clean  cultivation  argues  that  grass  draws  moisture 
from  the  soil  faster  than  rains  restore  it ;  that  the  soil,  not 


174  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

being  stirred,  becomes  closely  packed.  The  roots  of  the 
trees  also  fail  to  get  a  good  supply  of  moisture  when  it  is 
most  wanted.  The  tree  is  exhausted  in  its  effort  to  mature 
the  crop.  Besides  this,  if  grass  is  allowed  to  grow  round 
about  fruit-trees,  the  roots  are  deprived  of  the  best  kind  of 
a  mulch — a  mellow  surface,  frequently  worked.  It  is  a  fact 
which  can  not  be  refuted,  that  heavy  clay  loams,  which  have 
a  great  capacity  to  absorb  moisture,  can  be  kept  moist  by 
frequent  stirring  of  the  surface  during  very  dry  weather, 
when  a  thin  dressing  of  mulch  would  fail  to  keep  the  ground 
moist.  But  some  soils  are  too  porous  to  be  kept  moist  by 
frequent  stirring. 

Well,  what  shall  a  beginner  do,  when  authorities  disa- 
gree ?  Adopt  the  system  of  management  in  which  they  will 
agree.  When  young  fruit-trees  standing  in  grass  ground 
send  out  luxuriant  shoots  at  the  end  of  every  branch,  over 
one  foot  long  annually,  the  trees  are  growing  fast  enough  ; 
and  it  would  not  be  advisable  to  cultivate  the  surface,  as 
the  trees  might  be  stimulated  to  produce  a  growth  too  lux- 
uriant for  the  hardiness  of  the  young  branches.  On  the 
contrary,  if  the  entire  soil  is  kept  clean  and  mellow  through 
the  growing  season,  and  the  annual  growth  of  the  branches 
does  not  exceed  one  foot  in  length  upward  and  laterally,  it 
is  a  certain  indication  that  every  tree  needs  a  few  bushels 
of  ashes,  a  bushel  or  two  of  lime,  or  a  dressing  of  clay,  or 
sand,  or  muck,  or  barn-yard  manure,  or  the  soil  needs  under- 
draining.  Grass  would  be  ruinous  to  such  trees.  When  it 
is  desirable  to  keep  the  ground  in  grass,  spread  a  bountiful 
top-dressing,  and  mulch  round  about  every  tree.  There  is 
an  excellent  influence  exerted  by  the  character  of  a  thin, 
mellow  surface  on  the  roots  of  a  growing  tree.  These 
roots  may  be  at  the  first  only  half  a  foot  below ;  yet  daily 
stirring  but  an  inch  of  the  surface  may  quadruple  the 
growth  of  the  length  of  every  branch. 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  ORCHARDS.  175 

The  Twig  Blight. — In  many  localities  of  the  West,  and 
occasionally  of  the  East,  this  scourge  of  apple-orchards  has 
appeared.  In  some  instances,  it  has  scarcely  attracted  at- 
tention. The  true  cause  of  the  blight  has  not  yet  been  dis- 
covered. Most  pomologists  conjecture  and  guess  that  some 
noxious  insect  is  the  cause  of  the  great  injury  sustained 
by  the  trees.  Still,  repeated  examinations  with  magnifying- 
glasses  have  revealed  no  evidences  of  the  work  of  insects, 
as  no  stings,  larvae,  or  eggs  have  been  discovered. 

The  most  satisfactory  explanation  is  the  rather  tantalizing 
one  attributing  the  death  of  the  twigs  to  the  invasion  of 
minute  parasitic  plants — fungi.  Then,  if  fungi  may  be  re- 
lied on  as  the  true  scourge,  we  have  a  remedy,  which  con- 
sists of  thorough  cultivation  of  the  soil  with  scarifiers,  a 
liberal  top-dressing  with  lime  and  wood  ashes,  and  a  proper 
preparation  of  the  twigs  for  cold  weather,  by  pinching  the 
terminal  buds  or  clipping  the  luxuriant  branches  before  the 
growing  season  has  ended,  so  that  the  new  wood  may  be 
thoroughly  matured  before  cold  weather. 

Swine  confined  near  Fruit-trees. — When  swine  are  con- 
fined in  a  pen  around  fruit-trees,  they  should  be  watched 
closely,  lest  they  strip  all  the  bark  from  the  trees.  More 
than  this,  the  pen  should  not  be  kept  around  one  tree  over 
ten  to  fifteen  successive  days.  Fattening  swine  that  do 
not  receive  a  supply  of  grass,  or  fruit,  or  vegetables,  will 
often  devour  every  mouthful  of  bark  that  they  can  reach, 
whether  it  is  found  on  the  roots  or  the  body  of  a  tree. 
Strips  of  boards  may  be  nailed  firmly  to  a  tree  to  protect 
the  bark  from  swine.  We  have  often  heard  it  remarked 
by  old  men,  that  "  it  is  sure  death  to  a  fruit-tree  if  swine 
are  yarded  around,  and  allowed  to  root  much  about  it,  and 
to  sleep  near  the  body  of  it." 

That  this  is  not  always  the  effect  of  yarding  swine 
around  fruit-trees,  will  appear  from  what  we  have  to  state 


176 


THE  APPLE  CULTUBIST. 


MYLES  8  NONPAKEIL. 

Synonyms.— Oh\o  Nonpareil,  Cattail  Apple.  Fruit— Size,  large ;  form,  ronnd- 
ish  flattened ;  color,  red  and  yellow  marbled  and  splashed,  and  with  many  scat- 
tered gray  dots  ;  stem,  short  to  medium,  small ;  cavity,  regular,  open ;  calyx,  par- 
tially open;  basin,  medium  depth,  smooth  and  regular;  flesh,  yellowish  white, 
juicy,  rich,  tender,  mild,  sub-acid  ;  core,  regular,  partially  open  ;  seeds  abundant, 
plump,  and  full ;  season,  last  of  September  to  early  December.  In  many  locali- 
ties, this  valuable  apple  is  highly  esteemed  both  as  a  market  variety  and  as  a  su- 
perb fruit  for  culinary  purposes.  In  other  places,  it  does  not  succeed  so  satisfac- 
torily as  is  desirable. 


respecting  a  pear-tree,  and  a  cherry  tree,  with  which  we 
once  experimented.  The  pear-tree  was  upward  of  twenty 
years  old,  and  had  never  produced  any  ripe  fruit.  It  was 
usually  well  loaded  with  young  fruit,  much  of  which  would 
swell  to  the  size  of  a  large  hen's  egg,  and  then  would  be- 
come knotty,  full  of  cracks,  wilted,  and  would  all  fall  to  the 
ground,  long  before  it  was  time  for  any  of  it  to  ripen. 
Neither  pruning  nor  manuring  appeared  to  have  any  amel- 
iorating effect.     We  often  examined  scores  of  the  fallen 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  ORCHARDS,  111 

fruit,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  or  not  the  curculio,  or 
some  other  marauder,  were  not  the  cause  of  such  an  un- 
timely casting  of  the  fruit;  but  not  a  vestige  of  an  insect 
could  be  discovered.  With  no  expectation  of  ever  gath- 
ering any  ripe  fruit  from  that  tree,  we  determined  to  test 
what  was  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  whims  of  our  illustri- 
ous progenitors  ;  and,  accordingly,  two  shotes  were  yarded 
beneath  the  tree,  in  an  iuclosure  about  one  rod  square. 
They  were  kept  there  about  two  months.  Their  bed  was 
close  to  the  body  of  the  tree,  under  a  few  loose  boards.  In 
this  yard,  holes  were  made  with  a  crowbar,  into  which 
kernels  of  corn  were  dropped.  The  whole  ground  was 
rooted  over  and  over,  to  the  depth  of  eight  to  twelve  inch- 
es ;  and  many  of  the  roots  were  torn  up.  This  was  in  Au- 
gust and  September.  The  next  season,  instead  of  seeing  a 
dead  tree — the  result  of  recklessness,  as  was  prognosticated 
— every  branch  was  well  filled  with  luscious  fruit,  and  those 
trees  continued  to  yield  bountiful  crops  every  season,  as 
long  as  we  were  in  possession  of  them.  The  cherry-tree 
was  a  few  rods  from  the  pear-tree,  and  was  literally  loaded 
with  fruit  every  season.  But  previous  to  that  treatment  it 
never  ripened.  Some  of  it  would  rot.  Some  would  wilt 
and  dry  up.  Some  would  be  covered  with  black  knots, 
and  some  would  become  almost  ripe,  and  then  drop  to  the 
ground;  no  traces  of  insects  could  be  found.  The  hog 
remedy  was  applied  thoroughly^  and  every  season  since  it 
has  borne  a  large  supply  of  as  good  cherries  as  ever  birds 
picked. 

From  these  facts  it  would  appear  that,  if  yarding  swine 
about  fruit-trees  is  generally  injurious,  here  is  an  excep- 
tion. If  swine  were  permitted  to  sleep  close  to  the  body 
of  a  tree,  and  to  root  about  incessantly  for  a  whole  season, 
we  are  not  prepared  to  say  that  the  effect  might  not  prove 
fatal.     There  can  be  but  little  doubt,  when  fruit-trees  have 

8* 


178  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

stood  in  grass  ground  for  a  number  of  successive  years, 
and  for  some  unknown  reason  fail  to  produce  fruit,  that  if 
swine  were  confined  about  them  for  a  month  or  so,  the  ef- 
fect would  be  such  on  the  trees  as  to  render  them  produc- 
tive. Perhaps,  digging  about  them  with  a  spade,  and  ma- 
nuring, would  be  attended  with  the  same  result.  We  have 
our  eye  on  several  trees  in  that  neighborhood,  which  boro 
no  fruit  for  many  years ;  but  when  the  plough  was  applied 
to  the  soil  beneath  them,  they  brought  forth  good  crops. 
The  facts  also  furnish  an  unanswerable  argument  in  favor 
of  cultivating  the  soil  about  fruit-trees,  if  nothing  more. 

It  is  an  excellent  practice  to  allow  swine  to  have  the 
range  of  an  orchard  after  the  trees  have  come  fully  into 
bearing,  as  they  will  usually  devour  all  the  fruit  that  drops 
prematurely,  and  thus  destroy  the  larvas  of  noxious  insects 
that  may  be  in  the  fruit.  In  some  instances,  swine  are  per- 
mitted to  root  up  the  entire  ground,  which  may  sometimes 
be  an  advantage  to  bearing  trees.  Still,  we  have  no  faith 
in  such  a  system  of  cultivation.  If  the  soil  were  thin,  rest- 
ing on  a  compact  substratum,  most  of  the  roots  would  be 
found  near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Hence,  root-pruning 
by  swine  would  work  greater  injury  than  benefit  to  the 
trees.  A  Western  fruit-grower  writes:  "I  have  two  or- 
chards of  sixty  trees  each ;  in  one  my  swine  are  allowed  to 
run  from  spring  till  the  early  apples  ripen.  A  field  crop  of 
any  kind  is  never  taken  from  the  soil.  This  orchard  never 
fails  of  giving  a  full  or  fair  crop  of  apples.  The  other  is 
kept  in  grass,  which  is  mowed  annually,  and  no  stock  is  al- 
lowed to  run  among  the  trees,  as  this  can  not  well  be  done. 
The  result  is,  the  orchard  is  not  worth  any  thing  for  fruit, 
and  very  little  for  hay." 

Re-grafting  old  Apple-trees. — It  is  exceedingly  difficult 
for  any  person,  however  capable  he  may  be  of  communi- 
cating advice  touching  the  management  of  orchards,  to  di- 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  ORCHARDS.  179 

rect  what  shall  be  done  with  this  or  with  that  old  tree, 
which  he  has  never  seen.  The  very  best  treatment  that 
many  old  apple-trees  can  receive  is,  to  cut  them  down  at 
once,  and  remove  root  and  branch.  On  the  contrary,  an 
enormous  loss  is  often  sustained  by  cutting  down  old  nat- 
ural trees,  instead  of  re-grafting  them,  simply  from  a  want 
of  knowledge  of  the  best  mode  of  performing  the  work. 
After  an  orchardist  has  really  determined  to  re-graft  his 
old  apple-trees,  the  following  will  be  found  the  most  ap- 
proved and  satisfactory  manner  of  treating  them :  Before 
the  sap  begins  to  flow  in  the  spring,  trim  ,all  the  small 
branches  from  the  large  limbs  of  the  tree  perfectly  smooth, 
to  a  small  tuft  on  the  ex- 
treme ends,  as  represented 
by  Fig.  71.  This  will  cause 
the  branches  to  throw  out 
large  quantities  of  suckers 
in  all  directions,  most  of 
which  should  be  rubbed  off, 
except  in  such  places  where 
you  would  like  to  place  a  new 
branch  on  the  hmb,  at  which 
points  one  of  the  most  thrifty 
should  be  left.     These,  tak- 

,,       r  ,,  J.  ^,       ^  Manner  of  pruning  an  old  apple-tree. 

mg  the  luU  sap  oi  the  tree, 

will  usually,  in  two  summers,  be  of  sufficient  size  to  graft, 
when  they  may  be  cut  off  and  grafted,  some  eight  or  nine 
inches  fi*om  the  limb,  leaving  room  enough  for  re  grafting, 
if  the  first  by  any  means  should  fail.  Where  wounds  are 
made  as  large  as  a  cent,  a  coat  of  grafting-wax  should  be 
applied  at  once.  After  the  old  tree  has  been  grafted,  it 
will  have  the  appearance  of  Fig.  72,  p.  180.  When  the 
grafts  are  well  started,  perhaps  the  summer  following,  the 
tuft  of  old  branches  on  the  outer  ends  of  the  limbs  should 


180 


THE  APPLE  GULTURIST. 


Fig.  72. 


An  old  apple-tree  re-grafted. 


all  be  cut  ofP  close  to 
the  grafted  stock,  aud 
then  carefully  waxed 
over.  In  this  manner 
one  can  put  an  entire 
new  head  on  an  old  tree 
without  removing  any 
of  the  large  branches, 
and  can  have  the  new 
branches  appear  in  al- 
most any  place  that  may 
be  desired  on  the  old 
limbs.    The  grafts  being 


on  small  stocks,  soon  grow  over,  and  adhere  strongly,  with- 
out the  danger  of  a  rotten  or  defective  stock;  and  in 
five  years  one  may  reasonably  expect  a  bearing  orchard, 
with  as  perfect  and  handsomely  formed  heads  as  fancy  or 
skill  may  desire.  Instead  of  grafting  the  young  shoots 
thus  thrown  out  in  consequence  of  the  pruning,  they  may 
be  budded,  if  desired,  the  same  year  that  the  pruning  is 
performed,  provided  every  chance  is  allowed  them  for 
growth,  by  rubbing  off  a  part  of  the  supernumerary  shoots. 
Large  bearing  trees  may  be  obtained  by  a  renewal  of  old 
ones,  in  much  less  time  than  by  transplanting  young  trees. 
Yet,  after  all,  one  needs  to  exercise  a  vast  amount  of  judg- 
ment as  to  the  propriety  of  re-grafting  old  trees,  as  we 
have  suggested.  If  they  are  thrifty  and  prolific,  let  them 
be  grafted.  On  the  contrary,  if  they  are  indifferent  bear- 
ers, and  are  on  the  decline,  let  them  be  dug  up  at  once,  and 
a  young  tree  started. 

When  one  attempts  to  re-graft,  or  to  renew  old  apple- 
trees  by  removing  the  old  top  and  producing  a  new  one, 
it  will  be  found  of  eminent  importance,  after  th^  branches 
have  all  been  trimmed,  to  watch  the  development  of  new 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  0RCHAMD8.  181 

shoots.  It  is  very  unwise  to  allow  all  the  new  shoots  to 
grow  at  random,  and,  after  they  have  attained  a  large  size, 
give  the  tree  a  severe  pruning.  The  true  way  to  manage 
such  trees  is  to  watch  all  the  young  shoots  as  if  each  one 
were  a  separate  tree.  After  numerous  buds  have  started, 
let  a  part  be  pinched  off,  while  they  are  so  tender  that 
pruning  can  be  done  with  the  thumb-nail.  Let  such  shoots 
as  are  to  be  budded  be  favored.  A  person  must  ascend 
into  the  tree-top  frequently,  to  control  and  regulate  the 
growth  of  the  young  shoots.  A  vast  deal  of  timely  care 
must  be  exercised  to  make  the  young  shoots  grow  properly 
before  they  are  budded ;  then,  after  the  buds  have  begun 
to  push  upward  and  laterally,  that  timely  care  must  be  con- 
tinued through  the  entire  growing  season. 

The  modus  operandi  of  renewing  the  top  of  an  old  ap- 
ple-tree by  grafting  is  usually  performed  in  two  different 
ways.  The  first  is  by  grafting  the  smaller  limbs  on  the 
extremities  of  the  branches,  where  they  can  never  become 
any  thing  but  mere  twigs,  while  the  body  of  the  top  must 
ever  remain  filled  with  the  natural  branches ;  and  the  fruit 
of  the  new  top  will  appear  chiefly  at  the  extreme  ends  of 
the  boughs,  leaving  the  long,  bare,  and  unsightly  arms  to 
annoy  and  exhaust  the  tree  by  its  effort  to  throw  out  and 
support  its  ten  thousand  suckers.  This  is  the  kind  of 
grafting  usually  practised  by  most  of  those  itinerants  who 
perambulate  the  country  as  professional  grafters,  who,  be- 
ing too  lazy  to  travel,  and  being  fairly  mounted  in  the  tree, 
set  themselves  to  work,  on  the  logical  principle  that,  the 
nearer  the  extremities,  the  greater  the  number  of  branches ; 
and  the  larger  the  number  of  cions  they  can  set,  the  more 
remunerative  their  job  will  be.  As  a  rule,  such  interlopers 
are  very  unscrupulous,  having  no  regard  for  the  success 
gf  their  labor  further  than  the  development. of  the  leaves, 
which  is  usually  the  standard  by  which  the  pay  is  regu- 


182  THE  APPLE  CULTUBIST. 

lated;  neither  have  they  any  regard  to  the  kind  of  fruit 
that  is  set,  seldom  failing  of  a  job  for  the  want  of  the  vari- 
ety of  fruit  desired.  But  before  there  is  time  for  the  fruit 
to  prove  itself,  they  are  gone  to  parts  unknown,  to  practise 
their  deception  on  other  localities.  We  would  caution  the 
public  against  employing  this  class  of  peregrinators  as  un- 
safe and  unfit  for  their  employment. 

The  other  method  of  grafting  large  trees  is  to  saw  off 
large  branches  and  insert  the  cions  in  these  stumps,  bring- 
ing the  grafts  nearer  the  body  of  the  tree,  and  exempting 
it  from  the  growth  of  the  natural  branches,  or  the  pest  of 
suckers ;  while  it  gives  the  cions  an  opportunity  of  attain- 
ing to  some  size,  by  removing  them  farther  from  the  termi- 
nus of  the  capillary  attraction,  and  bringing  the  weight  of 
fruit  more  evenly  over  the  tree.  But  this  method,  too,  has 
its  objections ;  the  stocks  being  large,  the  grafts  will  re- 
quire time  to  grow,  so  as  to  cover  and  adhere  firmly  and 
strongly  to  the  stock.  Hence,  many  of  the  young  and  ten- 
der grafts  will  be  liable,  while  in  full  leaf,  to  be  split  off  by 
the  force  of  a  strong  wind ;  and,  as  they  will  usually  come 
into  bearing  before  the  grafts  cover  the  stump,  they  often 
split  off  with  the  weight  of  fruit ;  and  unless  there  is  more 
pains  taken  than  is  usual  to  keep  the  wounds  properly  waxed, 
the  stump  will  begin  to  decay  before  they  are  grown  over ; 
and  this  will  often  prove  a  defect  that  will  destroy  the  graft. 
It  is  a  common  occurrence  to  see  a  large  and  thrifty  graft 
full  of  fruit  broken  square  off  by  the  wind,  at  the  point 
where  the  cions  were  set  in  the  large  stock.  Hence  it  will 
be  found  preferable,  as  a  general  rule,  to  trim  the  branches 
of  a  tree  in  early  spring,  as  directed  by  Fig.  71,  and  inocu- 
late the  young  shoots  that  are  sent  out  on  the  bare  limbs. 
By  this  means,  a  beautiful  top  can  be  formed  quite  as  soon 
as  by  any  plan  of  grafting.  The  chief  aim  should  be  to 
form  suitable  limbs  at  proper  distances  from  each  other, 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OP  ORCHARDS.  183 

over  the  whole  extent  of  the  tree.  It  is  highly  important 
to  preserve  the  symmetry  of  the  tree-top.  The  practice  of 
having  a  little  bush  at  the  extremity  of  a  long  limb  on  each 
side  of  the  tree  should  be  guarded  against.  There  is  a  wise 
law  of  limitation  to  be  observed  in  the  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  apple-trees.  Grape-vipes  are  sometimes  trimmed 
twenty  to  thirty  feet,  without  a  bearing  branch  or  twig. 
Such  vines  would  be  far  more  productive  if  the  small  top 
that  produces  the  fruit  could  be  placed  near  the  root  of  the 
vine.  So  with  apple-trees :  if  the  little  bushes  at  the  ends 
of  long  and  naked  branches  could  be  placed  near  the  trunk 
of  the  tree,  there  would  be  much  more  fruit. 

Every  tree,  when  it  has  attained  its  full  size,  has  thrown 
out  its  branches  to  a  certain  extent.  But  why  do  they 
stop  there  ?  Why  does  not  the  tree  continue  to  extend  its 
branches  as  long  as  it  is  vigorous  and  healthy  ?  It  is  sim- 
ply because  the  body  and  limbs  are  composed  of  small  and 
minute  pores  ar  grains,  which  act  by  capillary  attraction,  in 
which  the  sap  rises.  Hence  the  tree  extends  to  a  height 
and  distance,  graded  exactly  in  proportion  to  the  minute- 
ness of  the  pores  of  the  wood.  This  is  the  reason  why  the 
beech,  the  hemlock,  the  spruce,  and  the  pine  each  attain  to 
a  different  altitude,  when  growing  side  by  side  in  the  same 
soil.  When  a  branch  has  attained  its  full  distance,  it  can 
not  be  extended  by  grafting  beyond  its  own  limits.  Hence 
the  importance  of  cutting  back  long  and  bare  branches,  with 
a  view  of  filling  up  all  the  space  in  the  centre  of  the  tree- 
top.  We  frequently  see  a  persistent  effort  made  by  Dame 
Nature,  when  apple-trees  have  been  all  trimmed  out  at  the 
middle  of  the  top,  to^^^  up  that  vacant  space  by  producing 
new  shoots  every  season.  Therefore,  when  all  the  branch- 
es but  the  grafts  are  removed,  the  more  grafts  there  are  to 
use  the  sap,  the  sooner  the  tree  will  be  relieved  of  its  press- 
ure and  disposition  to  form  wood,  and  produce  fruit  in- 


184  THE  APPLE  CULTUBIST, 

stead.  It  is  not  essential  that  grafts  should  make  just  the 
article  required  for  bean-poles  at  the  end  of  four  years,  but  it 
is  important  that  their  growth  should  be  a  medium  between 
that  of  a  little  wood  added  yearly  to  the  natural  branch- 
es and  the  extra  stimulus  of  a  few  more  twigs  near  the 
body  of  the  tree.  With  judicious  pruning  and  a  moderate 
growth,  more  side-branches  will  be  sent  out  on  the  grafts, 
so  that  in  a  short  time  the  outer  surface  of  the  tree  will  be 
covered  with  a  new  set  of  branches,  completely  shading  the 
unsightly  arms.  When  a  person  attempts  to  produce  a  new 
top  on  an  old  tree,  he  should  know  something  of  the  art  of 
pruning  and  training  trees  correctly.  It  is  not  enough  that 
he  possess  skill  to  cut  off  a  limb  and  set  a  cion  in  it,  so  that 
it  will  grow.  When  one  has  really  decided  to  graft  a  tree- 
top,  it  is  a  common  practice  to  graft  about  one-third  of  the 
top  one  season,  another  third  the  next  season,  and  so  on,  in 
which  case  the  operator  commences  at  the  top,  sawing  off 
such  limbs  as  he  desires  to  graft.  All  the  branches  that 
are  to  be  grafted  should  be  removed  before  one  cion  is  set. 
It  is  an  excellent  practice,  also,  to  saw  off  each  limb  twice. 
The  first  time  it  should  be  severed  half  a  foot  or  so  above 
the  place  where  the  cions  are  to  be  inserted.  The  object 
of  this  practice  is  to  prevent  injury  to  the  stock  below  the 
grafts.  The  workman  should  always  commence  at  the  top 
of  the  tree,  and  work  downward ;  then  no  grafts  will  be  in- 
jured. (See  How  to  Grafts  p.  23.)  There  are  so  many 
modifying  conditions  and  circumstances  incident  to  pro- 
ducing a  new  tree-top,  that  we  feel  much  dissatisfied  with  . 
the  foregoing  instructions.  This  branch  of  pomology  must 
be  learned  by  practice  rather  than  from  books. 

Fig.  73,  p.  185,  represents  an  apple-tree  which  is  to  be  re- 
grafted  by  installments.  The  branches,  a,  a,  a,  a,  are  to  be 
grafted  the  first  year.  Those  designated  by  h,  h,  should  be 
grafted  the  second  year ;  and  those  at  c,  c,  c,  the  third  year. 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  ORCHARDS. 


185 


An  old  apple-tree-top  reuewed  by  grafting. 


This  illustration  gives  the  Fig.  73. 

reader  merely  a  general 
idea  of  the  details.  The  dia- 
gram is  not  a  perfect  mod- 
el, as  the  centre  of  the  tree- 
top  has  been  pruned  away- 
much  more  than  the  branch- 
es should  be  in  a  real  tree. 
Care  of  the  new  Shoots. 
— The  task  of  putting  a 
new  top  on  a  tree  is  only- 
commenced  when  the  cions 
or  buds  have  begun  to 
grow.  Some  of  the  suck- 
ers should  be  allowed  to 
grow  till  the  grafts  themselves  can  form  sufficient  shade, 
and  use  all  the  nourishment  in  wood  and  fruit.  Suckers 
will  then  cease  to  be  troublesome.  A  thick  coating  of  al- 
burnum will  be  found  on  these  bare  arms,  where  before  it 
hardly  equalled  paper  in  thickness.  A  rapid  and  thrifty 
growth  will  follow  in  consequence,  thoroughly  renewing  the 
age  of  the  tree,  as  well  as  fruit,  in  the  least  possible  time. 
And  yet,  when  a  tree  is  so  thrifty  and  luxuriant  as  to  send 
out  a  profusion  of  suckers,  while  the  grafts  are  growing 
rapidly,  it  would  be  wrong  to  remove  them  all,  or  to  keep 
the  growth  down,  lest  the  grafts  be  stimulated  too  greatly, 
and  some  of  the  sap  should  stagnate.  Every  graft  on  a 
tree  requires  as  much  timely  care  as  a  young  tree.  Hence 
the  great  labor  of  producing  a  new  tree-top.  If  several  ci- 
ons have  been  set  in  a  stock,  and  they  all  begin  to  grow, 
the  best  and  most  promising  one  only  should  be  suffered 
to  grow.  The  usual  practice  is  to  allow  all  to  grow  for  a 
year,  and  then  trim  out  the  redundant  branches.  But  such 
a  practice  is  not  to  be  commended  under  any  circumstances. 


186 


THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 


DUCHESS  OP  OLDENBTma. 

l^mY.— Size,  medium  to  large ;  form,  roundish,  flattened ;  skin,  smooth,  with  a 
light  bluish  bloom ;  color,  light  and  deep  rich  red,  washed,  striped  and  splashed 
on  a  yellow  ground ;  stem,  short ;  cavity,  acuminate ;  basin,  deep,  wide,  even, 
regular ;  calyx,  large,  nearly  closed ;  flesh,  slightly  yellowish-white,  sharp,  sub- 
acid, juicy,  and,  when  well-ripened,  pretty  rich ;  season,  September,  and  often 
keeping  into  October.  Tree.— An  upright,  vigorous,  hardy,  and  healthy  grower, 
with  dark-colored  shoots,  and  broad,  dark-green,  coarsely-serrated  leaves.  A 
profuse  bearer,  apparently  adapting  itself  to  all  soils  and  situations,  and  yielding 
a  fruit  of  great  value  for  marketing  and  for  cooking  purposes.  It  is  of  Russian 
origin. 


One  graft  on  the  end  of  each  stock  will  be  far  preferable 
to  two  or  three.  In  many  instances,  there  will  be  such  an 
abundance  of  sap  that  sprouts  will  burst  forth,  and  out- 
grow the  grafts,  unless  they  are  pinched  back..  It  is  a  very 
common  occurrence  to  see  grafts  struggling  for  existence 
between  strong  and  luxuriant  sprouts,  which  choke  them 
to  such  a  degree  that  they  are  almost  ruined.  When  a 
new  tree-top  is  being  produced,  if  it  is  desirable  to  develop 


OENEItAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  OBCHARDS.  187 

branches  which  will  make  a  well-balanced  and  symmetrical 
top,  the  new  grafts  must  not  be  neglected  when  the  first 
begin  to  grow.  Every  one  should  be  examined  frequently, 
and  pinched,  if  necessary,  or  trained  so  as  to  grow  into  a 
beautiful  portion  of  the  tree. 

Ploughing  old  Orchards. — Perhaps  the  land  around  the 
trees  has  already  been  ploughed  too  much.  If  so,  plough- 
ing the  ground  again  will  operate  like  applying  whip  and 
spur  to  a  jaded  horse,  after  he  has  been  urged  and  whipped 
and  spurred,  until  he  has  galloped  so  long  and  so  far,  that 
the  poor  brute  is  just  ready  to  drop  from  exhaustion. 
There  are  instances  in  which  ploughing  the  ground  of  an 
old  orchard  will  be  the  means  of  rendering  the  trees  pro- 
ductive. Yet  they  are  so  rare,  that  it  is  safe  for  us  to  re- 
cord our  protest  against  ploughing  such  ground,  as  there 
is  a  far  better  way  to  make  the  trees  fruitful.  If  the  land 
is  covered  with  a  tough  sod,  we  would  never  disturb  one 
square  foot  of  it  with  a  plough.  The  surface-soil  round 
about  such  old  trees  is  full  of  roots,  ready  to  devour  all 
the  fruit-producing  material  that  can  be  found  in  ther  upper 
stratum  of  the  earth.  The  mere  process  of  breaking  it  up 
with  a  plough  will  not  promote  its  fertility  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  the  trees  will  yield  a  crop  of  fruit.  Besides  this, 
those  old  trees  do  not  need  such  a  severe  root-pruning  as 
they  will  be  obliged  to  suffer  if  the  ground  is  ploughed. 
The  far  better  way  will  be  to  feed  the  hungry  roots  by 
applying  fertilizing  material  to  the  surface  round  about 
each  tree,  as  far  as  the  branches  extend.  Pomace  is  excel- 
lent when  spread  on  the  surface,  as  it  will  furnish  a  boun- 
tiful supply  of  apple-producing  pabulum.  But  let  not 
pomace  be  applied  too  bountifully  near  a  tree,  lest  it  de- 
stroy every  root.  A  layer  two  inches  deep  will  effectually 
destroy  every  thing  that  has  life  beneath  it  for  several 
years;  while  six  to  ten  bushels — according  to  the  size  of 


188  THE  APPLE  GULTURIST, 

the  tree — spread  evenly  and  thin  around  each  bearing  tree, 
will  greatly  promote  its  fruitfulness.  If  the  soil  is  light, 
sandy,  or  mucky,  apply  a  dressing  of  marl,  or  clay,  say  one 
inch  deep,  as  far  as  the  branches  extend.  After  this  appli- 
cation, spread  a  liberal  dressing  of  ashes  and  lime.  There 
is  little  danger  of  applying  too  much.  In  late  autumn, 
spread  half  a  wagon-load  of  rich  barn-yard  manure  around 
each  tree.  The  next  season,  if  the  trees  have  been  properly 
trained,  pruned  and  scraped,  there  will  be  thrice  as  much 
fruit  as  if  the  land  had  been  ploughed. 

Straightening  leaning  Trees. — No  fruit-tree  will  be  so 
productive  when  the  entire  top  and  body  havfe  been  blown 
partially  over,  as  it  will  when  in  an  erect  position.  When 
a  tree  leans,  sprouts  will  almost  always  start  from  the  up- 
per side  of  the  body,  or  branches,  and  grow  perpendicular- 
ly. By  this  means,  the  largest  proportion  of  the  sap  will 
flow  into  the  erect  stems,  while  the  horizontal  part  of  the 
top  receives  only  a  limited  supply  of  nourishment.  When 
it  is  desirable  to  straighten  up  a  leaning  fruit-tree,  set  a 
post  in  the  ground,  say  twenty  feet  from  the  tree,  to  which 
a  chain,  or  rope  and  pulleys,  may  be  attached,  and  the  tree 
straightened  up  and  secured  with  a  strong  wire,  extending 
from  a  stake  in  the  ground  to  a  strap  around  the  main  part 
of  the  tree.  In  case  a  tree  is  large  and  well  rooted,  let  the 
earth  be  excavated  on  the  upper  side  and  a  few  of  the 
larger  roots  loosened,  and  the  earth  removed  beneath  them, 
so  that  the  top  of  the  tree  may  be  brought  up  with  ease  to 
the  desired  position.  There  is  no  better  time  than  early 
spring-time  to  perform  such  jobs,  as  new  roots  will  often 
start  out  from  those  that  have  been  severed,  and  continue 
to  grow  till  the  end  of  the  growing  season.  The  guy-wires 
will  always  hold  trees  in  position,  until  the  roots  wiU  keep 
the  top  erect.  If  long  branches  grow  too  erect,  it  is  easy 
to  wire  them  down  to  the  proper  position,  when  the  wires 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  OBCHABDS,  189 

may  all  be  removed  after  one  season.     As  a  general  rule, 
leaning  fruit-trees  are  neglected  quite  too  much. 

When  to  cease  Scarifying  a  young  Orchard. — Every  am- 
bitious pomologist  appears  to  think — as  by  some  sort  of 
instinct — that  after  a  few  years  the  land  round  about  ap- 
ple-trees must  be  stocked  down  to  grass.  There  are  in- 
stances where  it  would  be  a  decided  advantage  to  the 
young  trees  that  are  now  producing  a  few  bushels  of  ap- 
ples each,  to  have  the  land  stocked  down.  But  such  cases 
are  rare.  So  long  as  the  branches  ripen  the  wood  satisfac- 
torily before  cold  weather,  the  ground  should  not  be  stock- 
ed down.  On  the  contrary,  when  trees  continue  to  grow 
so  rampantly  in  late  autumn  that  the  extremities  of  the 
twigs  do  not  ripen  before  the  end  of  the  growing  season, 
it  will  be  better  to  stock  the  ground  down  to  grass  or  clo- 
ver, for  the  purpose  of  checking  that  luxuriant  growth  late 
in  the  season.  As  has  been  already  stated  in  another  part 
of  this  work,  let  it  be  distinctly  understood,  and  constantly 
borne  in.  mind,  that  the  young  trees  must  be  cultivated ; 
the  soil  must  be  constantly  stirred,  and  kept  clean,  until  the 
orchard  has  fairly  got  under  way  with  a  thrifty  growth. 
This  is  best  effected  by  continuing  the  culture  several 
years.  As  pomologists  are  often  unwilling  to  work  with- 
out an  immediate  return  for  their  labor,  a  naked  fallow 
among  the  trees  will  too  often  be  neglected ;  but  a  partial 
crop  between  them  will  be  an  incentive  to  giving  the  or- 
chard just  such  attention  in  the  way  of  cultivation  as  it 
requires.  J.  J.  Thomas  says,  touching  this  subject,  that  the 
length  of  time  that  this  culture  should  be  continued  will 
depend  upon  the  condition  of  the  trees,  and  the  character 
of  the  soil  and  surface.  The  orchard  should  have  assumed 
the  most  thrifty  growth  before  the  cultivation  is  suspend- 
ed, whether  this  may  have  required  three  years  of  culture 
or  six.     On  hilly  lands,  with  a  soil  disposed  to  wash  into 


190  THE  APFLE  CULTUBIST. 

gulleys,  we  can  not  continue  the  ploughing  with  impunity, 
but  must  use  such  an  alternation  of  crops  as  will  obviate 
the  necessity  for  constant  open  culture.  This  may  be  ar- 
ranged by  a  rotation  of  clover  with  corn  or  potatoes,  which 
will  be  a  valuable  alternation,  since  this  legume  is  itself 
almost  a  cultivator  of  the  soil,  rendering  it  loose  and  mel- 
low, while,  at  the  same  time,  the  surface  is  clothed,  and  the 
soil  is  bound  together  by  its  roots.  Moreover,  the  red  clo- 
ver plant  attracts  much  of  its  sustenance  from  the  atmos- 
phere through  its  abundant  foliage,  and  the  radicals  sink 
deep  into  the  subsoil  in  search  of  nutriment.  It  will  al- 
ways be  found  a  safe  rule  to  cultivate  young  orchards  until 
the  trees  are  ten  to  fourteen  feet  high,  and  of  a  correspond- 
ing proportion  as  to  breadth  of  top ;  after  which,  stock  the 
land  down,  and  mulch  the  surface  around  the  trees,  if  they 
require  it,  instead  of  scarifying  it. 

Neglected  Apple-trees. — The  country  is  replete  with  such 
disfiguring  blotches  of  the  homestead  or  orchard.  A  neg- 
lected apple-tree  appeals  more  strongly  to  the  eye  of  the 
pomologist  after  it  has  shed  its  leaves ;  and  in  too  many  in- 
stances the  tree  is  hastily  cut  away,  leaving  but  its  stump 
as  an  unpleasant  reminder  of  the  loss  of  a  valuable  old 
friend,  which  might  have  been  saved  by  a  little  timely  care. 
Where  the  early  training  of  a  tree  has  been  neglected,  there 
are  often  several  leaders  forming  the  top.  In  this  case,  an 
acute  bifurcation  is  to  be  carefully  prevented  by  checking 
and  shortening  the  weaker  side.  If  we  neglect  this,  there 
is  danger  of  the  tree  splitting  from  top  to  bottom  when 
loaded  with  its  first  heavy  crop. 

Every  fruit-tree  should  grow  a  little  every  season,  as  the 
growth  of  new  wood  every  year  is  Nature's  provision  for 
the  healing  and  repair  of  wounds,  for  the  increase  of  size  in 
trees,  and  for  productiveness.  If  a  fruit-tree  do  not  grow 
at  all,  it  can  not  be  expected  to  produce  a  crop  of  fruit. 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  ORCHARDS.  191 

Hence,  when  a  tree  has  been  neglected  so  long  that  the  en- 
tire top  has  become  a  dense  hedge  of  brush,  with  the  branch- 
es all  intertwining  so  closely  that  a  person  can  scarcely 
climb  into  the  top,  the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  commence 
the  work  of  thinning  out  the  supernumerary  branches.  Per- 
haps Dame  Nature  has  already  begun  to  prune  in  her  own 
slow  manner,  as  she  prunes  forest-trees,  by  withholding  the 
annual  flow  of  sap  from  certain  branches  until  they  die  and 
drop  to  the  ground.  A  good  pruning-saw  will  be  found  the 
most  convenient  instrument  for  this  purpose.  Do  not  make 
a  clean  sweep  of  every  branch,  but  thin  out  gradually,  here 
and  there,  cutting  away  the  poorer  boughs  first.  Let  the 
aim  be  to  thin  out  the  crooked  and  weak  twigs  and  branch- 
es first.  Where  two  limbs  cross  each  other,  so  that  one 
rides  on  the  other  and  interferes  with  its  growth,  let  the 
poorest  one  be  cut  away.  Let  the  centre  of  the  top  be  thin- 
ned out  to  such  an  extent  that  a  person  can  climb  around 
among  the  boughs.  If  the  extremities  of  the  limbs  are 
very  bushy,  take  the  pruning-shears  (Fig.  53),  and  thin  out 
the  old  twigs,  so  that  new  spray  may  be  produced,  which 
will  bear  fruit.  Let  the  branches  be  cut  off  smoothly,  as 
directed  on  page  128,  Fig.  57,  at  a,  after  which  take  the  ket- 
tle of  liquid  grafting-wax  (see  p.  55)  into  the  tree-top,  and 
smear  all  the  wounds.  This  treatment  will  give  a  neglect- 
ed tree  such  a  start,  that,  if  the  soil  is  rich,  a  crop  of  fine 
fruit  may  be  expected  in  two  years  after  the  pruning. 

Renewing  Stunted  Trees. — It  frequently  occurs  that  ap- 
ple-trees— and  the  same  is  true  of  other  fruit-trees — after 
being  removed  from  the  place  where  they  sprang  from  the 
seed,  or  from  the  nursery-row,  fail  to  grow  at  all  satisfac- 
torily, and,  in  many  instances,  they  barely  live  from  year  to 
year.  The  difficulty  in  such  cases  is,  the  trees  were  too  old 
to  be  taken  up  with  removing  a  ball  of  earth  without  the 
roots ;  or  the  tap-root  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  laterals 


192 


THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 


were  severed,  and  left  in  the  ground  when  the  tree  was  re- 
moved ;  or  the  tree  was  taken  from  a  rich  and  deep  soil, 
and  transplanted  in  very  uncongenial  and  poor  ground,  where 
there  was  perhaps  no  surface  mould  at  all,  and  where  the 
entire  ground  is  hard  and  almost  impenetrable  by  roots  of 
any  kind.  Any  one  of  these  conditions  or  circumstances 
will  be  sufficient  to  give  a  tree  an  almost  fatal  stunt.  In 
many  instances,  the  sub-soil  is  so  thoroughly  saturated  with 
water,  that  the  roots  can  not  spread  downward. 

Fig.  73i. 


A  SLiriOB  IN  THE  OKOHARD. 

When  stock  of  any  kind  are  permitted  to  feed  in  an  orchard  where  all  the  water 
is  collected  in  under-drains,  a  sluice,  like  Fig,  73^,  will  be  found  a  source  of  great 
convenience  in  providing  clean  water  for  them  to  drink.  A  plank  box,  six  to  ten 
feet  long,  without  bottom  or  top,  is  sunk,  as  represented,  so  that  the  water,  flow- 
ing through  a  drain,  may  enter  the  box  at  one  end,  and  run  out  through  a  hole  at 
the  other  end  into  the  ditch,  and  pass  off.  Sheep  and  swine  can  walk  down  on 
either  side  of  the  sluice,  thrust  their  heads  into  the  large  holes  in  the  side  planks, 
and  drink  without  fouling  the  water.  Homed  cattle  and  horses  can  also  drink 
at  the  same  watering-place.  The  ground  should  be  excavated  on  both  sides,  and 
paved  with  small  stones,  so  that  the  feet  of  animals  will  be  as  low  as  the  water  in 
the  sluice. 

Management  of  young  bearing  Trees. — As  soon  as  a  well- 
trained  apple-tree  begins  to  bear,  the  only  pruning  required 
is  the  annual  reduction  of  the  leader,  in  order  to  thicken 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  ORCHARDS.  193 

the  trunk  at  the  base,  removing  any  rival  shoot  that  may 
threaten  to  compete  with  it,  and  taking  out  a  little  useless 
spray  from  the  centre  of  the  tree,  if  the  branches  are  too 
thick  and  are  in  each  other's  way.  One  great  object  being 
always,  in  pruning,  to  promote  hardiness  and  fertility,  these 
two  points  must  be  always  kept  in  view.  As  soon  as  an 
apple-tree  is  able  to  bear,  permit  a  moderate  production  of 
fruit,  but  do  not  allow  a  heavy  crop.  It  is  better  to  have 
a  few  fine,  well-formed  apples  at  first,  near  the  body  of  the 
tree,  than  a  lot  of  miserable  half-grown  specimens  dangling 
in  the  wind  at  the  end  of  the  limbs.  Wherever  a  tree  has 
been  so  neglected  that  it  has  two  or  three  leaders  w^hich 
can  not  be  cut  down  to  one,  without  wounding  and  nearly 
girdling  the  limb  selected  to  remain,  it  is  better  to  retain 
them  all,  and  prune  the  whole  into  a  compact  oval  or  dis- 
taff form;  and,  therefore,  the  limbs  spreading  at  a  right 
angle  should  be  carefully  reduced,  not  immediately  at  the 
trunk,  but  at  a  convenient  distance,  some  few  inches  from 
it ;  for  it  is  better  to  make  an  elbow — which,  in  pruning,  is 
generally  to  be  avoided — than  to  leave  a  branch  too  long 
whose  length  will  destroy  the  regular  oval  shape  of  the  tree. 
In  many  instances,  there  is  such  a  desire  to  have  young 
trees  produce  a  bountiful  crop  of  fruit,  that  a  young  or- 
chard is  kept  in  an  unthrifty  condition  for  many  years, 
from  no  other  cause  than  overbearing  while  the  trees  were 
growing  rapidly.  Our  own  practice  has  ever  been  to  clip 
off,  in  many  instances,  seven-eighths  of  all  the  young  fruit, 
as  the  growth  of  the  branches  was  of  more  importance  and 
value  than  the  small  quantity  of  fruit  that  would  be  pro 
duced  at  the  expense  of  the  future  hardiness  and  vigor  of 
the  bearing  shoots.  It  will  be  found  more  injurious  to 
young  trees  to  bear  a  bountiful  crop  of  fruit  than  for 
young  animals  to  produce  young  before  they,  have  attained 
a  proper  age  for  propagating  their  species. 

9 


194  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 


CHAPTER  YII. 

THE  FAILURE  OP  ORCHARDS,  AND  THE  PRACTICABLE 
REMEDY. 

The  price  of  our  apples,  of  peaches,  and  cherries, 

The  price  of  fine  currants,  of  pears,  plums,  and  berries, 

Is  measured  by  combats  with  foes  in  a  tilt, 

With  war  to  the  knife,  and  the  knife  to  the  hilt.— Edwakps. 

The  failure  of  apple-orchards  is  a  theme  of  common  con- 
versation in  all  localities  where  apples  are  cultivated.  In 
the  majority  of  instances,  pomologists  assume  that  apple- 
trees  and  pear-trees  fail  to  produce  such  crops  of  fruit  as 
were  once  raised  in  certain  localities,  because  the  varieties 
are  running  out.  They  feel  confident  that  they  have 
guessed  correctly  on  this  point.  But  the  assumption  is  a 
great  delusion ;  and  we  can  convince  any  intelligent  pomol- 
ogist  that  the  conclusion  is  erroneous.  If  the  same  quahty 
of  soil  can  be  secured,  and  the  same  surroundings  as  to 
protection  by  forests,  and  if  the  cions  from  the  topmost 
boughs  of  old  trees  that  have  once  borne  bountiful  crops 
of  fine  fruit,  but  have  now  failed,  could  be  set  in  young 
stocks  as  hardy  as  the  stocks  were  which  were  employed 
sixty  or  eighty  years  ago,  we  should  see  trees  loaded  with 
just  as  fine  fruit  as  the  old  trees  ever  produced.  The  truth 
is,  there  is  a  limit  to  the  productiveness  of  all  kinds  of  fruit' 
trees.  Old  animals  cease  to  bear.  And  why  should  not 
trees  grow  old  and  barren?  Forest-trees  reach  a  limit  in 
their  growth,  and  decay.  And  can  it  be  expected  that  ap- 
ple-trees will  continue  to  bear  after  they  have  passed  the 
maximum  limit  of  life  ?     Durham  cattle  die :  but  the  breed 


THE  FAILURE  OF  ORCHARDS,  AND  ITS  REMEDY.     195 

. — the  variety — does  not  deteriorate.  If  old  trees  cease  to 
bear,  and  die,  the  variety  of  fruit  does  not  fail,  if  cions  from 
the  branches  be  set  in  young  stocks.  If  a  piece  of  ground 
be  cleared  of  the  forest,  by  burning  every  thing  to  ashes  on 
the  land,  as  farms  used  to  be  cleared,  and  heavy  bodies  of 
growing  timber  be  left  standing,  to  protect  the  young  or- 
chard, there  will  be  no  complaint  of  failure  of  fine  fruit. 
The  trouble  is  in  the  culture  and  treatment  of  the  growing 
trees.  The  young  orchards  that  ought  now  to  be  yielding 
bountiful  crops  of  fine  fruit  have  been  produced  and  culti- 
vated in  the  most  perfunctory  manner.  And  then,  because 
it  is  impossible  for  trees  to  bear  under  such  circumstances, 
pomologists  have  assumed  that  there  is  "  something  in  the 
air — some  pernicious  east  wind  that  blasts  the  embryotic 
fruit,  or  the  varieties  are  running  out !" 

1.  Now  then,  let  us  sift  the  evidence,  point  by  point,  and 
take  an  honest  view  of  the  subject,  by  comparing  the  past 
with  the  present.  Four- score  years  ago,  the  stocks  into 
which  cions  were  set  were  produced  from  more  hardy  va- 
rieties than  the  stocks  of  the  present  day.  N'ow,  nursery- 
men plant  the  seed  of  any  kind  of  fruit.  It  can  not  be 
denied  that  the  stock  exerts  a  wonderful  influence  on  the 
productiveness  of  the  bearing  tree. 

2.  Four-score  years  ago,  fruit-trees  were  set  in  a  virgin 
soil  which,  in  most  instances,  had  been  top-dressed  bounti- 
fully with  unleached  ashes,  which  are  an  almost  indispens- 
able requisite  in  the  production  of  fine  fruit.  But  now 
inferior  trees  are  planted  in  an  inferior  soil,  without  wood 
ashes  and  other  fertilizing  materials,  which  growing  fruit- 
trees  must  have  before  they  can  produce  a  bountiful  crop. 

3.  Four  score  years  ago,  almost  every  orchard  was  shield- 
ed by  a  belt  of  forest-trees.  But  now,  cold  and  fierce  winds 
sweep  over  the  country  for  a  long  distance,  raking  young 
orchards  in  a  fearful  manner. 


196 


TEE  APPLE  CULTUMIST. 


4.  A  large  proportion  of  the  orchards  all  over  New  Eng- 
land, and  many  other  States,  have  been  almost  ruined  by 
stupid  management.  As  the  soil  had  become  very  much 
impoverished,  in  consequence  of  having  yielded  a  long  suc- 
cession of  bountiful  crops  of  fruit,  and  the  trees  began  to 
show  the  results  of  injudicious  management,  some  stupid 
wood-chopper  would  be  directed  to  prune  the  trees ;  which 
would  be  performed  by  cutting  off  about  half  of  the  entire 
top,  and  in  numerous  instances  more  than  half;  and  large 
limbs,  six  to  eight  inches  in  diameter,  have  been  chopped 
off,  making  such  broad  wounds  that  they  could  never  heal 
over.  Hence,  the  wood  began  to  decay,  so  that  thousands 
of  valuable  apple-trees,  that  once  yielded  full  crops  of  fruit, 
decayed  to  the  heart,  often  becoming  hollow.  Such  man- 
agement and  treatment  of  fruit-trees  is  surely  sufficient  to 
effectually  annihilate  the  most  hardy  and  prolific  variety  of 
pears  or  apples  that  has  ever  been  cultivated. 

The  diagrams  of  two  murdered  trees  (Fig.  74),  which 
were  originally  engraved  for  the  "Annual  Register,"  will 
furnish  a  fair  idea  of  the  system  of  management  adopted 
by  untold  numbers  of  farmers.    The  trees  have  been  ruined 

by  some  tree-murder- 
er, who  has  cut  and 
carved,  right  and  left, 
leaving  long  and  un- 
even stubs,  which,  in- 
stead of  healing  over, 
have  decayed.  Be- 
sides this,  the  land 
has  been  cropped  un- 
til the  soil  has  no 
more  fertility  left 
in  it,  either  for  pro- 
Apple-trees  badly  managed.  ducing  apples  or  any 


THE  FAILURE  OF  ORCHARDS,  AND  ITS  REMEDY.     197 

Other  crop.  Large  sprouts  have  been  allowed  to  grow  from 
the  collar,  and  the  trees  have  received  such  ruinous  treat- 
ment that  they  are  nearly  worthless.  Let  the  reader  com- 
pare these  ruined  trees  with  the  fine-appearing  illustration 
on  p.  117.  An  axe  is  no  more  suitable  for  trimming  apple- 
trees  than  such  an  edge-tool  is  for  cutting  one's  finger-nails 
or  his  hair. 

5.  Four-score  years  ago,  noxious  insects,  grubs,  beetles, 
curculios,  borers,  caterpillars,  worms,  and  aphides,  seldom 
injured  bearing  fruit-trees  more  than  enough  to  thin  out 
the  superabundant  crops.  But  now,  if  a  man  plants  an 
orchard  of  the  very  best  and  hardiest  varieties  of  apples, 
he  must  watch  for  grubs  in  the  roots,  for  borers  in  the 
bodies  of  the  trees,  dispute  his  title  to  the  fruit  with  innu- 
merable caterpillars,  with  army-worms,  canker-worms,  and 
many  other  worms,  with  untold  numbers  of  the  codling, 
moth,  the  irrepressible  curculio,  in  a  hand-to-hand  contest, 
and  with  uncounted  numbers  of  aphides,  which  are  ready 
to  suck.the  last  drop  of  sap  from  every  growing  tree. 

From  the  foregoing  suggestions,  every  intelligent  pomol- 
ogist  will  perceive  what  difficult  influences  and  formidable 
enemies  of  both  the  apple-trees  and  the  fruit  must  be  en- 
countered when  an  effort  is  made  to  produce  a  crop  of 
apples. 

We  well  recollect,  when  a  small  lad,  that  the  father  of 
the  writer,  and  most  people  in  that  vicinity,  had  their  or- 
chards cut  to  pieces  in  the  most  stupid  and  wanton  man- 
ner, by  men  who  knew  no  more  about  training  and  pruning 
fruit-trees  than  the  verdant  son  of  Erin  who  cut  down  a 
young  orchard  when  he  was  directed  to  prune  the  trees. 
We  have  seen  many  large  and  prolific  apple-trees,  after  the 
bodies  had  literally  decayed  to  the  heart,  in  consequence 
of  the  large  wounds,  standing  on  two  prongs  before  the 
trees  died.     None  of  those  orchards  that  were  hacked  so 


198  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

unwarrantably,  ever  recovered  from  the  fatal  injury  of 
such  stupid  pruning.  Is  it  any  wonder  that  fruit-trees 
fail  to  bear,  when  treated  thus?  Is  it  not  rather  a  won- 
der that  varieties  maintain  their  identity  as  well  as  they 
have  done? 

Worthless  Trees. — In  addition  to  the  foregoing  causes  of 
failure,  there  are  other  causes  of  serious  failure  in  the  pro- 
duction of  apples,  which  a  beginner  must  understand  be- 
fore he  can  calculate  on  success.  With  nurserymen  who 
have  trees  to  sell,  and  who  have  no  further  anxiety  than 
simply  to  produce  trees  which  will  command  a  high  price, 
a  tree  that  will  never  produce  a  satisfactory  crop  of  fruit 
is  just  as  good  as  one  that  will  yield  annually  a  bountiful 
crop.  There  are  untold  numbers  of  worthless  apple-trees 
sold  every  season,  which  will  never  yield  one-fourth  the 
amount  of  a  fair  crop ;  and  yet,  to  all  external  appearances, 
they  were,  when  transplanted,  smooth,  thrifty,  and  superior 
trees.  If  a  tree  has  not  been  produced  properly,  it  can 
never  be  expected  to  yield  a  satisfactory  crop  of  fruit ;  and, 
when  apple-trees  that  have  been  produced  as  such  trees 
should  be  grown,  are  not  managed  correctly,  they  will  not* 
yield  a  supply  of  fruit.  The  nursery  business  has  been  en- 
gaged in  by  such  a  large  number  of  persons,  who  are  ut- 
terly ignorant  of  the  fundamental  requirements  in  order  to 
produce  bearing  trees,  that  our  country  is  overstocked  with 
worthless  fruit-trees,  which  appear  all  right ;  but  which, 
with  superior  management,  will  never  yield  a  satisfactory 
crop  of  fruit.  Every  intelligent,  jomc^^ca/  pomologist,  if 
he  has  exercised  himself  to  observe  what  influences  affect 
growing  fruit-trees,  both  favorably  and  injuriously,  knows 
that  an  apple-tree  which  has  been  produced  by  setting  a 
cion  in  a  piece  of  the  root  of  a  young  tree  that  has  sprung 
from  the  half-ripe  seed  of  a  miserable  apple,  can  never  be 
made  to  yield  satisfactory  crops  of  fruit. 


THE  FAILURE  OF  OUCH  AMD  ti,  AND  ITS  REMEDY.     199 

Woodpeckei's.—Hheve  are  several  kinds  of  woodpeckers  ofgreat  value  to  pomolo- 
gists,  namely,  the  Eed-headed  Woodpecker,  the  Hairy  Woodpecker,  and  the  Gold- 
en-winged Woodpecker.  Fig.  75  represents  the  parent  bird  feeding  a  grub  to  a  full- 
grown  fledgeling.  At  the  lower  part  of  the  picture,  a  young  woodpecker,  almost 
large  enough  to  try  his  pinions,  is  represented  as  looking  out  on  the  world  from 
his  nest  in  an  old  tree.  Although  woodpeckers  will  eat  good  fruit,  they  should 
not  be  destroyed,  as  they  perform  an  excellent  service  in  exterminating  noxious 
insects  while  the  fruit  is  growing.    We  have  never  known  them  to  do  any  other 


Fig.  75. 


RED-UKADEl)    WOOT>PECKER8. 


damage  than  to  eat  cherries  and  mulberries.  They  are  so  shy,  that  it  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  frighten  them  away  from  fruit-trees  by  means  of  a  few  men  of  straw,  sus- 
pended from  the  end  of  a  long  pole,  so  that  the  wind  will  keep  the  images  in  mo- 
lion.  The  length  of  this  bird  is  nine  and  a  half  to  ten  inches  ;  alar  extent,  seven- 
teen inches ;  bill,  light  blue ;  legs,  bluish-green  ;  iris,  dark-hazel ;  head,  neck,  and 
throat,  crimson ;  back,  wings,  and  tail,  black,  with  bluish  reflections ;  secondaries, 
rump,  lower  part  of  the  back,  and  under  parts  of  the  body,  white.  Female,  less 
brightly  colored ;  young,  head  and  neck  dull  gray,  varied  with  blackish. 
The  Red-headed  Woodpecker  is  well  known  throughout  the  United  States.    In 


200  THE  APPLE  GULTUBI8T. 

spring  and  summer,  it  is  seen  in  almost  every  region.  Their  return  northward  in 
Pennsylvania  is  about  the  1st  of  May.  About  the  middle  of  that  month,  they  pre- 
pare their  nests  in  the  large  limbs  of  dead  trees,  adding  no  materials  to  the  cavity 
which  they  smooth  out  for  the  purpose.  Sometimes  several  perforations  are  found 
in  the  same  tree  ;  but  living  trees  are  seldom  occupied  by  them.  The  same  tree 
is  employed  for  years  in  succession  by  a  pair  of  these  birds.  The  eggs,  usually  six 
in  number,  are  white,  marked  at  the  largest  end  with  reddish  spots,  in  which  last 
particular  they  differ  from  all  others  of  the  genus.  The  first  brood  appear  about 
the  20th  of  June.  Both  the  eggs  and  young  of  this,  as  of  many  other  birds,  often 
fall  a  prey  to  the  common  black-snake.  These  birds  are  exceedingly  agile,  se- 
curing with  ease  the  beetles  seen  from  their  perch.  When  the  fruit  is  all  gone, 
their  facility  in  detecting  insects  under  the  bark  of  trees  is  remarkable.  Alight- 
ing upon  the  trunk,  one  of  them  will  stand  motionless  for  a  few  moments ;  then 
he  will  strike  the  tree  with  his  bill,  and  seem  to  be  listening  to  hear  the  sound  of 
the  borer's  auger  in  the  bark,  or  an  iuch  or  more  in  the  wood  of  the  apple-tree. 
Woodpeckers  seem  to  have  been  made  with  an  especial  reference  to  the  work  of 
destroying  borers  in  all  kinds  of  trees.  After  a  borer  has  worked  his  way  two 
inches  into  an  apple-tree,  unless  he  plugs  his  passage  tightly  after  him,  the  wood- 
pecker will  thrust  in  his  long,  har- 
poon-formed tongue,  as  represent-  Fig*  76. 
ed  by  Fig.  76,  and  haul  the  fat  borer 
out  and  devour  him. 

The  Hairy  Woodpecker,  which  is 
often  known  as  the  "Sap-sucker," 
is  frequently  killed  on  account  of 
the  erroneous  notion,  cherished  by 

some  persons,  that  this  bird  pecks      a  wood-pecker's  head  with  the  barbed  tongue  extended. 

holes  through  the  bark  of  fruit- 
trees,  to  feed  on  the  cambium  (see  Glossary),  when  the  faithful  little  bird  is  taking 
out  grubs.  It  is  a  common  occurrence  to  see  hundreds  of  holes  like  the  depres- 
sion of  a  large  gimlet  made  in  the  bark  of  trees,  at  the  bottom  of  which  the  bird 
found  a  grub.  Had  those  depredators  been  unmolested,  they  would  have  made 
a  complete  honey-comb  of  the  body  of  the  tree  in  two  or  three  years.  Through 
profound  ignorance,  many  persons  often  destroy,  in  a  relentless  manner,  some 
of  their  most  faithful  benefactors. 

The  Golden-winged  Woodpecker— -called  also  the  Yellow  Hammer,  High  Holder, 
Tucker,  and  Flicker,  in  other  parts  of  the  Union,  being  seldom  known  by  the 
name  of  Golden-winged,  employed  by  naturalists — may  be  said  to  be  one  of  the 
least  destructive  of  the  birds  regarded  as  injurious  to  agriculture,  while  it  lives  to 
a  great  extent  on  insects  and  borers  that  infest  fruit  and  other  trees.  This  bird  is 
especially  recognized  by  it^  flicker,  flicker,  flicker,  flicker,  which,  at  a  little  distance, 
is  like  the  sound  made  by  a  mower  as  he  whets  his  scythe.  At  all  times  animated 
and  happy,  these  birds  are  peculiarly  so  at  the  love-making  season  of  early  spring, 
when  their  voices  may  be  heard  in  the  utterance  of  joyous  sounds,  and  when  the 
coy  female  is  pursued  by  several  males  until  she  has  indicated  her  preference, 
which  produces  no  strife,  as  the  rejected  lovers  at  once  fly  off  elsewhere  to  woo. 
The  song  of  the  male,  at  this  season,  is  not  unlike  a  jovial  laugh,  nor  by  any  means 
unmusical.  As  soon  as  mated,  each  pair  immediately  proceed  to  excavate  the 
trunk  of  a  tree,  and  to  fashion  a  place  for  themselves  and  their  young.  The  hole 
is  at  first  made  horizontal,  and  then  downward  about  six  or  eight  inches.  They 
caress  each  other  on  the  branches,  climb  about  and  around  the  tree  with  apparent 
delight,  rattle  with  their  bilfs  against  the  tops  of  the  dead  branches,  chase  away 
the  red-heads,  and  feed  abundantly  upon  ants,  beetles,  and  larvae.  Before  two 
weeks  have  passed,  from  four  to  six  semi-transparent  eggs  are  laid.  Two  broods 
are  thus  produced  in  each  season.  The  movements  of  one  of  them  upon  the  side 
of  a  tree  or  upon  the  ground  are  very  quick,  though  it  only  alights  upon  the  earth 


THE  FAILURE  OF  ORCHARDS,  AND  ITS  REMEDY.     201 

to  pick  up  a  beetle,  caterpillar,  or  other  insect,  or  perhaps  a  grain  of  com.  The 
young  of  this  species  frequently  have  the  whole  upper  part  of  the  head  tinged 
with  red,  which,  at  the  approach  of  winter,  disappears,  when  merely  a  circular 
line  of  that  color  is  to  be  observed  on  the  hind  part,  becoming  of  a  rich  vermilion 
tint.  Some  writers  have  denounced  this  bird  as  unfit  to  live.  But  we  have  seen 
no  evidence  that  it  is  not  a  useful  bird. 

Fig.  11. 


NKST   OF  A  BAI.TIMOUE   ORIOI.E. 

The  Orchard  Oriole  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  birds  that  pomologists  can  en- 
courage to  dwell  among  their  fruit-trees,  as  they  subsist  almost  exclusively  on 
noxious  insects.  The  Baltimore  Oriole  is  another  bird  of  great  value  in  apple- 
orchards.  It  is  exceedingly  difficult  for  crows  or  hawks  to  take  the  eegs  or  the 
young  of  these  birds  out  of  their  nests,  as  every  nest  is  usually  suspended  beneath 
swaying  branches,  as  represented  by  Pig.  11.  A  pair  of  Baltimore  orioles  were 
accustomed  to  build  their  nest  every  year  on  a  favorite  pear-tree  near  the  writer's 
dwelling,  in  Central  New  York,  several  years  ago;  and  it  was  an  admirable  sight 
to  observe  the  wonderful  skill  displayed  by  those  birds  in  building  their  nest. 
The  first  step  was  to  procure  a  piece  of  wrapping-twine,  one  end  of  which  was 
wrapped  three  times  around  a  horizontal  branch  just  beyond  the  fork  of  a  branch, 
and  the  end  was  tucked  beneath  the  main  strand,  so  that  the  greater  the  stress  or 
weight  on  the  string,  the  tighter  it  woixld  clasp  the  branch.  ^The  other  end  was 
then  wrapped  about  the  opposite  branch  of  the  fork,  allowing  the  middle  to  hang 

9* 


202 


THE  APPLE  CULTUUmT. 


down  in  the  form  of  a  basket  or  an  oblong  ponch,  Fig.  77.  Several  such  strings 
were  attached  to  the  branches  with  wonderful  precision.  Strong  spears  of  grass 
were  also  employed  and  woven  in  among  the  pieces  of  twine,  as  a  basket-maker 
weaves  or  braids  a  basket.  All  this  is  performed  with  the  bills.  We  could  pen 
pages  of  interesting  matter  touching  the  natural  history  of  the  orioles ;  but  we 
have  only  space  to  implore  farmers,  and  every  one,  not  to  "  destroy  the  goose 
that  lays  the  golden  egg."  Spare  the  orioles.  Encourage  them  to  abide  in  the 
fruit  orchard.  Do  not  allow  ill-natured  boys  to  stone  them,  nor  cruel  sportsmen 
to  shoot  them.  They  will  destroy  an  immense  number  of  noxious  insects.  Let 
children  be  taught  in  early  life  that  the  orioles  are  their  best  friends,  to  whose 
eflforts  many  a  fine  crop  of  fruit  is  justly  due. 

Fig.  78. 


QOLPEN   OKIOLE8  AND  NEBT. 


The  Golden  Oriole,  illustrated  by  Fig.  78,  is  one  of  the  useful  little  birds  that 
flourishes  for  a  few  months  during  the  former  part  of  the  growing  season  near 
human  habitations.  Birds  of  this  variety  seldom  feed  on  fruit.  They  carry  large 
numbers  of  worms  and  bugs  to  their  yonng  ones ;  and  their  chief  food,  at  all 
times,  consists  of  noxious  insects. 


THE  FAILURE  OF  ORCHAUm,  AND  ITS  REMEDY.     203 

Apple-trees  starved  out. — That  inquirers  may  perceive 
what  views  other  writers  entertain  touching  the  cause  of 
failure  in  orchards,  we  herewith  quote  from  the  "  Canada 
Farmer,"  the  editor  of  which  says :  It  is  no  uncommon 
thing  to  meet  with  single  trees,  or  even  whole  orchards, 
once  productive,  that  have  become  barren,  either  yielding 
no  fruit  whatever,  or  a  few  scrubby  specimens — mere  apol- 
ogies for  the  products  formerly  given.  In  such  cases  you 
will  perhaps  hear  it  said  that  the  trees  have  failed,  or  be- 
come exhausted ;  whereas  the  truth  is,  that  the  soil  is  ex- 
hausted. Such  phenomena  are  viewed  *as  among  the  mys- 
teries of  the  vegetable  kingdom;  but  they  are  among  the 
simplest  and  most  easily  explained  facts  to  be  met  with  out 
of  doors.  It  would  be  difficult  to  find  any  thing  more  ir- 
rational than  the  course  pursued  by  many  in  regard  to 
fruit-growing.  A  young  orchard  is  planted  out,  and  forth- 
with sown  to  a  grain  crop,  in  which  the  trees  stand  during 
the  summer  months,  like  storks  in  a  rush-pond,  their  heads 
just  peering  over  the  nodding  grain.  Year  after  year  a 
similar  course  is  pursued.  The  land  is  expected  to  bear  as 
much  of  some  sort  of  crop  as  though  an  orchard  had  never 
been  thought  of.  After  much  hard  struggling,  half  the 
trees,  perhaps  two-thirds,  are  found  to  have  survived,  and 
they  begin  to  bear  a  Httle  fruit.  At  last,  by  a  stretch  of 
leniency,  the  orchard  is  seeded  down ;  and,  after  one  or  two 
mowings,  converted  into  hard-run  pasture.  Who  ever  thinks 
of  manuring  an  orchard  ?  or  what  fool  would  dream  of  giv- 
ing up  the  land  to  the  trees,  and  manuring  it  well,  and  cul- 
tivating it  thoroughly  ?  Yet  if,  after  the  worst  possible 
usage,  the  trees  do  not  bear  plenty  of  choice  fruit,  either 
the  nurseryman  is  blamed,  or  the  climate  is  cursed,  or,  for- 
sooth, the  trees  are  exhausted !  The  theory  of  rotation  of 
crops,  in  general  farm  practice,  is  based  on  the  fact  that 
constantly  growing  the  same  produce  exhausts  particular 


204  THE  APPLE  GULTURIST. 

elements  in  the  soil ;  and  this  fact,  no  doubt,  often  accounts 
for  the  barrenness  of  fruit-trees  and  the  failure  of  orchards. 
The  soil  is  robbed  of  its  nutritive  properties  year  after  year 
— no  new  supply  is  furnished — and  out  of  nothing,  nothing 
can  come.  The  practical  lesson  is  obvious :  we  must  feed 
our  fruit  trees  if  we  expect  them  to  feed  us. 

Itinerant  Grafters. — Taken  as  a  class,  they  are  no  more 
reliable  than  Jew  peddlers  who  are  selling  stolen  goods. 
They  have  wrought  irreparable  mischief  in  many  a  thrifty 
orchard,  by  cutting  off  such  a  large  proportion  of  the 
branches,  that  almost  every  tree  received  an  injurious — al- 
most fatal — set-back,  by  having  too  much  of  the  top  re- 
moved at  one  time.  In  almost  every  part  of  the  country, 
people  have  been  outrageously  deceived  by  itinerant  graft- 
ers. They  traverse  the  country,  and  take  orders  to  do 
grafting  at  so  much  apiece  for  all  that  live,  or  at  so  much 
for  each  cion  set,  ready  pay.  When  the  season  of  grafting 
comes,  a  few  workmen  come  along  with  a  wagon-load  of 
cions,  containing,  professedly,  every  variety  that  could  pos- 
sibly be  called  for,  all  procured  from  the  most  responsible 
source;  and  as  a  proof  of  this,  a  catalogue  of  some  well- 
known  nurseryman  is  exhibited,  and,  it  may  be,  a  forged 
bill  or  invoice,  while  the  cions  were,  in  many  instances,  cut 
from  some  of  the  orchards  they  had  been  grafting  in.  Thou- 
sands of  orchards  have  been  ruined  in  this  way.  We  have 
in  mind  an  orchard  which  has  been  grafted  by  one  of  these 
rogues,  and,  instead  of  having  some  three  or  four  select 
sorts,  he  had  a,  collection  of  vile  rubbish,  mostly  natural 
fruit ;  and,  in  some  cases,  three  or  four  different  sorts  were 
grafted  on  a  tree.  We  might  cite  cases  of  this  sort  which 
have  come  to  our  knowledge,  enough  to  fill  a  dozen  pages. 
In  some  parts  of  the  country,  people  are  more  cautious  and 
careful  than  formerly,  so  that  few  men  now  are  willing  to 
trust  unknown,  irresponsible  persons  with  the  important 


THE  FAILURE  OF  ORCHARDS,  AND  ITS  REMEDY.     205 

duty  of  grafting  their  fruit-trees.  Not  so,  however,  in  some 
parts  of  the  West  and  South,  where,  we  are  informed,  the 
speculation  is  in  full  blast.  It  is  but  just  to  say,  in  this 
connection,  that  there  are  honest  men  engaged  in  this  busi- 
ness of  grafting — men  in  all  respects  worthy  of  confidence 
— and  the  service  they  render  to  fruit-culture  is  very  great. 
"What  we  have  said  will  be  no  detriment  to  them ;  for  they 
have  characters  to  sustain  them  and  to  inspire  confidence. 

The  remedy  for  this  source  of  injury  to  an  orchard  is — 
when  trees  are  to  be  grafted — to  procure  cions  from  thrifty, 
bearing  trees,  during  the  winter,  and  let  the  grafting  be 
performed  by  some  intelligent  person  who  understands 
something  of  the  science  of  pruning  fruit-trees. 

Want  of  proper  Pruning  constitutes  a  prominent  cause  of 
failure  in  the  productiveness  of  many  apple-trees.  When 
some  kinds  of  apple-trees  are  permitted  to  grow  ad  libitum, 
as  if  branch-extension  were  the  great  desideratum,  and  ex- 
pend all  their  forces  in  the  production  of  wood-growth,  they 
can  produce  little  or  no  fruit.  Indeed,  it  is  not  possible  for 
any  tree  to  perfect  a  fruit-germ,  and  not  again  in  some  way 
disorganize  it,  unless  the  wood-growth  shall  cease  in  time 
for  the  leaves  to  elaborate  a  sufficient  quantity  of  plant- 
food  to  grow  both  leaf  and  fruit  the  following  year,  or  until 
a  part  of  the  leaves  shall  attain  to  nearly  or  quite  their  full 
size.  That  this  is  so,  will  be  apparent  when  we  consider 
that  the  leaves  which  first  appear  in  the  spring  were  form- 
ed in  the  buds  the  previous  year,  perfect  in  all  their  parts, 
and  in  the  embryo  state  contained  each  individual  cell 
found  in  them  when  fully  grown.  As  growth  begins  in 
the  spring,  the  small  cells  which  were  formed  in  the  previ- 
ous year  begin  to  expand.  Each  individual  cell  thus  en- 
larges, until  all  the  cells  of  which  these  leaves  are  composed 
have  attained  full  size.  Here,  for  example,  is  a  tree  in 
possession  of  a  full-grown  leaf.     This  leaf  did  not  form  it- 


206  THE  APPLE  VULTURIST. 

self,  but  was  formed  by  the  tree  in  the  preceding  year.  To 
produce  and  sustain  this  cellular  enlargement,  there  has 
been  stored,  the  previous  year,  a  large  share  of  nutriment 
in  the  buds  and  in  other  parts  of  the  trees.  This  nutri- 
ment must  not  only  be  sufficient  to  feed  the  embryo  leaves, 
but  also  be  sufficient  to  produce  the  small  warty  excres- 
cences— the  rootlets  and  spongioles.  These  new  leaves  and 
spongioles  are  the  tree's  laboratory.  The  first  growth  of 
leaves  and  spongioles  was  made,  with  the  exception  of 
moisture,  wholly  out  of  the  materials  that  were  stored  by 
the  tree  during  the  growth  of  the  previous  year.  When 
these  vegetable  stores  are  in  sufficient  supply  to  do  this, 
and  nourish  the  fruit-germs  also,  then  we  shall  hear  little 
about  imperfect  fertilization.  On  the  other  hand,  had  the 
food  been  consumed  the  previous  year,  by  ripening  the 
over-crop  of  fruit,  or  by  making  a  very  succulent  growth, 
then  the  tree  would  not  have  a  sufficient  amount  of  plant- 
food  to  perform  its  three-fold  office  in  the  production  of 
leaves,  roots  with  their  spongioles,  and  fruit.  In  this  con- 
dition, a  part  of  the  leaf,  and  a  larger  part  of  all  the  fruit- 
buds,  yield  up  their  nourishment,  which  goes  to  the  pro- 
duction of  root  and  leaf  growth.  The  tree,  therefore,  is 
barren  of  fruit  for  the  summer,  its  whole  growth  being  re- 
quired to  recuperate  its  own  vigor.  Such  trees  bloom  free- 
ly, and  then  cast  their  blossoms.  When  this  occurs,  unin- 
formed persons  often  attribute  it  to  want  of  fertilization,  or 
suppose  that  the  rain  must  have  washed  away  the  pollen. 
The  true  remedy  is,  adopt  the  means  recommended,  p.  167, 
for  the  purpose  of  promoting  fruitfulness. 

Want  of  Protection  in  Winter. — We  are  aware  that  round 
about  New  York  and  Boston,  and  other  localities,  where 
orchards  rest  in  the  very  bosom  of  the  sea,  the  pomological 
authorities  scout  at  the  idea  of  protection.  In  many  local- 
ities in  Southern  latitudes,  fruit-trees  do  not  require  any 


THE  FAILURE  OF  OMCUABDH,  AND  ITS  liEMEBY.     207 

protection  from  winter  winds  and  cold  storms.  Hence  we 
do  not  advocate  universal  protection.  But,  at  a  distance 
from  the  ocean,  in  most  localities,  apple-orchards  have  suf- 
fered extremely — often  fatally — for  want  of  the  protection 
which  a  belt  of  timber  will  afford. 

Lewis  Ellsworth,  who  is  acknowledged  to  be  reliable  au- 
thority at  the  West,  writes  that  the  loss  in  fruit-trees  in 
Illinois,  within  the  last  three  years,  is  millions  of  dollars, 
which  is  attributed  ta  the  cold  winters  and  dry  summers. 
But  he  asserts  that,  to  a  great  extent,  this  result  has  arisen 
from  their  standing  unprotected  in  a  soil  underlaid  with 
a  retentive  clayey-loam  subsoil,  which  characterizes  most 
of  the  prairie  lands.  He  has  adopted  the  practice  of  ridg- 
ing his  land  by  repeated  ploughings,  commencing  at  the 
same  ridges,  and  ending  at  the  same  dead  furrows.  Where 
nursery-trees  were  formerly  thrown  out  by  freezing,  since 
ridging,  they  stand  throughout  the  winter  without  injury, 
and  make  a  better  growth  in  summer^  He  recommends 
the  ridging  system  for  all  orchards,  each  row  of  trees  being 
placed  On  the  centre  of  the  ridge. 

We  have  no  doubt  that  the  thorough  draining  of  such 
ground  would  lessen  the  effects  of  severe  winters  on  fruit- 
trees  in  other  regions  as  well  as  at  the  West. 

Belts  of  Timber  around  Fruit-orchards.  —  We  will  sup- 
pose, for  example,  that  an  orchard  is  to  be  planted  on  a 
broad  prairie,  where  the  cold  winds  of  a  North-western 
winter  can  rake  the  surface  of  the  earth  for  twenty  to  thir- 
ty miles  ;  and  suppose,  farther,  that  a  few  neighbors  are  in 
possession  each  of  fifty  acres  of  land.  Let  them  all  co-ope- 
rate in  establishing  belts  of  forest-trees  as  effectual  wind- 
breakers,  around  every  fifty-acre  plot.  By  working  in  con- 
cert, as  joint  owners  of  land  build  line  fences,  heavy  belts 
can  be  established  in  a  few  years. 

The  first  step  should  be  to  break  up  a  strip  of  ground 


208  THE  APPLE  CULTUIilST. 

not  less  than  four  rods  wide,  early  in  autumn.  Let  the 
ground  be  ploughed  deep.  Then  scarify  the  surface  with 
cultivators  and  harrows,  until  the  whole  strip  is  reduced  to 
a  fine  tilth.  Now  stick  four  rows  of  stakes  about  one  rod 
apart,  lengthways  of  the  plot,  where  rows  of  trees  are  to 
grow.  The  two  outer  rows  will  be  about  eight  feet  from 
the  border.  Hoed  crops  may  be  cultivated  on  such  ground 
for  a  few  years.  Or  the  surface  may  be  worked  oocasion- 
ally  with  a  horse-hoe,  to  subdue  the  grass  and  weeds,  and 
to  keep  the  soil  moist.  Crops  of  cereal  grain  should  never 
be  raised  where  such  trees  are  growing,  as  the  aim  should 
be  to  promote  the  development  of  every  tree,  by  keeping 
the  soil  moist  and  free  from  vegetation  during  the  growing- 
season.  If  grass  and  grain  are  not  allowed  to  grow  around 
such  trees,  every  one  will  shoot  upward,  in  good  soil,  from 
two  to  four  feet  annually.  In  ten  years,  by  proper  cultiva- 
tion, a  dense  belt  may  be  formed  thirty  feet  in  height,  en- 
tirely around  a  fruit-orchard.  But  let  grain  and  grass  be 
cultivated  among  the  trees,  and  the  tops  will  not  stretch 
upward  more  than  one  foot  in  each  year. 

What  Trees  to  cultivate. — The  aim  should  be  to  select 
such  varieties  as  can  be  propagated  easily,  which  will 
grow  rapidly,  mature  their  branches  thoroughly  before  cold 
weather,  be  hardy  during  the  winter,  and  make  valuable 
timber.  Among  such  varieties  may  be  mentioned  the  but- 
ternut (tTuglans  einerea),  the  black  walnut  (Juglans  nigra), 
the  yellow  locust  {Rohinia  pseudicacia) ;  in  some  localities 
the  chestnut  {Gastanea  vesca)  will  flourish  satisfactorily. 
Some  Western  pomologists  recommend  for  this  purpose. 
Cotton-wood,  Tree  Willow,  and  Silver  Leaf  Maple,  -which 
will  in  a  few  years  make  an  effective  screen  for  an  orchard 
and  farm  crops,  all  of  which  will  grow  rapidly,  and  most  of 
which  will  yield  durable  timber.  There  are  also  other  trees 
which  would  be,  perhaps,  preferable  to  these  in  certain  lo- 


THE  FAILURE  OF  ORCHABDIS,  AND  ITS  REMEDY.     209 

calities.  But,  whatever  the  varieties  may  be,  the  trees  that 
will  grow  most  rapidly  and  the  taller  should  always  occu- 
py the  middle  of  the  belt.  If  slow-growiug  varieties  be 
planted  in  the  middle  rows,  and  rapid  growers  on  the  out- 
side, the  trees  in  the  middle  of  the  belt  will  soon  be  over- 
grown, and  their  natural  development  choked  down. 

Just  before  cold  weather,  mark  out  the  ground  in  the 
quincunx  order,  and  plant  the  nuts  or  seeds  about  eight  feet 
apart,  except  the  two  outside  rows,  which  should  consist  of 
hardy  evergreens  that  can  be  obtained  most  conveniently 
from  nurseries  or  the  forest.  Hemlock,  cedar,  and  pine  will 
grow  rapidly,  if  every  one  has  a  good  tap-root.  Hence  it 
will  be  important  to  select  very  small  trees,  which  have  a 
tap-root.  The  same  is  true  with  all  nut-bearing  trees.  It 
will  be  found  far  more  satisfactory  to  plant  the  nuts  where 
the  trees  are  to  grow,  so  that  the  tap-root  may  not  be  in- 
jured, than  to  attempt  to  transplant  trees  from  nurseries. 
A  protecting  belt  can  be  formed  much  sooner,  and  the  trees 
will  all  be  of  a  more  uniform  height,  by  preparing  the  ground 
as  suggested,  and  planting  the  nuts  and  seeds  in  autumn, 
than  by  taking  trees  from  the  nursery.  Pine-trees  will  sel- 
dom flourish  satisfactorily  without  the  aid  of  a  tap-root  to 
bring  up  moisture  in  hot  and  dry  weather. 

Necessity  of  Protection. — Let  the  reader  understand  that 
we  are  not  advocates  of  universal  protection.  It  is  only 
advocated  in  localities  where  deep  snows  fall,  where  pro- 
tracted cold  weather  and  piercing  winds  prevail,  and  where 
the  surface  of  the  earth  round  about  trees  freezes  up  so 
tight  and  to  such  a  depth  as  to  check  all  the  circulation  of 
the  sap  in  the  roots.  Where  trees  and  the  ground  are 
thawed  out  the  next  day  after  freezing  up  tight,  no  timber- 
belts  will  be  needed.  We  should  remember  that  apple- 
trees  are  things  of  life — living  and  breathing  existences,  as 
much  as  many  other  specimens  of  animate  nature,  which 


210  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 


BEl)  ASTEAKHAN. 

Sj/nont/ws.— Deterdiug's  Early,  Astrakhan  Rouge,  Eother  Astrakhan,  Abe  Lin- 
coln, and  Vermilluu  d'Ete.  This  beautiful  apple  has  come  to  us,  through  Eng- 
land, from  Russia.  Its  introduction  into  this  country  is  quite  recent ;  but  it  is 
now  seen  in  our  markets,  and  sells  as  well  as  any  other  variety  of  the  same  sea- 
son. It  generally  bears  well,  and  is  in  all  respects  worthy  of  a  place  in  every  col- 
lection. Fruit  is  rather  above  the  middle  size,  very  smooth  and  fair,  roundish,  a 
little  narrowed  towards  the  eye.  Skin  almost  entirely  covered  with  deep  crimson, 
with  sometimes  a  greenish-yellow  in  the  shade,  and  occasionally  a  little  russet 
near  the  stalk,  and  covered  with  a  pale  white  bloom.  Stalk  deeply  inserted. 
Calyx  set  in  a  slight  basin,  which  is  sometimes  a  little  irregular.  Flesh  quite 
white,  crisp,  moderately  juicy,  with  an  agreeable,  rich,  acid  flavor.  Ripens  from 
the  last  of  July  to  the  first  of  September,  according  to  locality. 

are  endowed  with  powers  of  locomotion.  A  vital  fluid  cir- 
culates through  every  radicle  and  hair-like  rootlet,  through 
the  stem,  every  branch  and  minute  twig,  thus  maintaining 
the  healthful  existence  of  every  bud  within  the  folds  of 
which  is  enveloped  the  future  fruit,  or  nothing  but  a  leaf. 
Countless  numbers  of  mouths  are  ever  open  to  catch  the 
pearly  rain-drops  and  the  minute  tidbits  in  the  well-pre- 
pared soil,  which  are  conveyed  to  the  buds  to  expand  the 
blossoms  and  develop  the  luscious  fruit.    The  genial  breezes 


THE  FAILURE  OF  ORCHARDS,  AND  ITS  REMEDY.     211 

of  the  spring,  the  glowing  sunlight,  the  refreshing  showers 
of  summer,  the  pelting  storms  and  intense  cold  of  winter, 
all  exert  more  or  less  influence  on  the  vitality  of  a  fruit- 
tree.  There  is  more  or  less  circulation  of  the  vital  fluid 
through  the  roots,  stem,  and  branches,  at  ail  seasons  of  the 
year.  Although  the  circulation  may  be  feeble  during  the 
reign  of  stern  winter,  when  the  whole  vegetable  kingdom 
is  bound  in  icy  fetters,  still  there  is  a  living,  breathing,  ac- 
tive vitality  in  every  branch,  twig,  and  bud. 

Any  one  who  has  access  to  a  growing  tree  may  satisfy 
himself  that  this  suggestion  is  not  based  on  some  ground- 
less theory.  By  severing  a  live  limb  from  the  parent  stem, 
covering  the  end  with  wax,  and  securing  the  amputated 
branch  in  the  tree-top,  where  it  will  be  exposed  to  the  same 
influences  of  alternate  heat  and  cold,  it  will  be  seen,  after  a 
few  weeks  have  passed,  that  the  severed  branch  is  drying 
up.  This  fact  assures  us  that  there  is  a  constant  transpira- 
tion through  the  bark  and  buds.  Consequently,  if  the 
branches  and  buds  do  not  receive  a  supply  from  the  roots, 
the  last  drops  of  moisture  will  be  taken  out  of  the  green 
bark  by  the  piercing  and  drying  winter  winds.  We  all 
understand  how  rapidly  the  cold  and  driving  winds  of  win- 
ter will  suck  out  and  convey  away  the  last  atom  of  moist- 
ure in  a  wet  board  or  a  wet  garment.  When  "  Old  Boreas  " 
has  drawn  his  big  fiddle-strings  up  to  concert  pitch,  so  that 
swaying  forests  keep  time  with  his  music,  which  makes  the 
vast  plains  roar,  and  hill  and  valley  echo  with  the  sound  of 
a  tempest,  the  searching,  driving,  and  drying  wind  will 
have  the  moisture  of  the  trees,  if — to  use  the  emphatic 
phrase  of  a  boorish  rough — the  last  drop  "  must  be  taken 
out  of  the  hide."  Hence,  if  the  ground  be  frozen  up  solid, 
as  far  down  as  the  roots  extend,  every  mouth  must  be 
stopped ;  and,  consequently,  the  supply  of  moisture  for  the 
buds  and  twigs  will  be  cut  off.     Then,  if  cold  and  drying 


212  THE  APPLE  CULTUMI8T. 

winds  prevail  for  many  successive  days  and  weeks,  who 
does  not  perceive  that  the  very  life-sap  of  a  growing  tree 
must  yield  to  the  imperative  demands  of  the  furious  wind  ? 
This  perpetual  draught  of  the  drying  wind  on  the  scanty 
supply  of  sap  and  moisture,  which  is  sucked  out  through 
every  pore  of  the  buds  and  bark,  exerts  such  a  deleterious 
influence  on  the  productiveness  of  the  fruit-tree,  that  the 
embryotic  fruit  is  destroyed,  and  the  vitality  of  the  tender 
branches  so  seriously  impaired  that  the  trees  can  scarcely 
survive  during  the  growing  season.  These  suggestions  fur- 
nish a  philosophical  reason  why  it  is  found  so  exceedingly 
difficult,  in  the  West  and  North-west,  to  obtain  fruit-trees 
that  will  endure  the  rigors  of  our  Northern  winters. 
Every  intelligent  pomologist  will  readily  understand  and 
appreciate  the  conditions,  circumstances,  and  influences  to 
be  encountered  if  one  attempts  the  cultivation  of  a  fruit- 
orchard. 

The  question  will  then  arise,  Is  there  any  practical  reme- 
dy ?  And  is  it  available  ?  Yes,  perfectly  so.  If  a  plot  of 
ground  be  cleared  in  the  centre  of  a  forest,  and  an  orchard 
planted,  the  fury  of  the  drying  winds  will  be  spent  on 
the  breast-work  of  forest-trees,  and  the  draught  for  moist- 
ure will  be  less  severe  on  the  buds  and  branches.  The 
ground,  also,  will  not  be  frozen  to  so  -great  a  depth.  And, 
as  a  consequence,  the  circulation  of  the  vital  fluid  will  not 
be  so  completely  obstructed.  Hence  the  embryotic  fruit 
will  not  have  the  last  drop  of  moisture  sapped  from  the 
dormant  buds.  Therefore  the  vitality  of  a  fruit-tree  will 
suffer  but  little  injury  from  protracted  periods  of  cold  and 
drying  weather.  All  these  conditions  and  circumstances 
are  controlled  and  regulated  by  natural  laws,  which  are  as 
reliable  as  the  vicissitudes  of  the  seasons.  And  it  is  the 
business  of  pomologists  to  study  the  operations  of  the  laws 
which  affect  vegetation,  and  to  make  an  application  of  the 


THE  FAILURE  OF  ORCHARDS,  AND  ITS  REMEDY.     213 

knowledge  gained  in  one  thing  to  the  successful  accom- 
plishment of  another  purpose. 

Now,  then,  if  pomologists  will  observe  all  the  funda- 
mental requirements  in  the  production  of  fruit-trees,  by- 
selecting  the  best  kernels  for  bearing  trees,  and  cultivate 
and  train  in  strict  accordance  with  the  laws  of  vegetable 
physiology,  then  encircle  their  young  orchards  with  a  com- 
plete wind-breaker  of  trees,  and  cover  the  ground  round 
about  the  trees  with  straw  or  sawdust,  to  prevent  the 
frost  from  closing  the  tens  of  thousands  of  minute  feeders, 
which  must  supply  the  branches  and  buds  with  moisture, 
even  in  cold  weather,  such  an  occurrence  as  a  failure,  of 
fruit,  in  consequence  of  the  severity  of  a  long  and  cold 
winter,  would  be  rarely  met  with,  save  in  the  records  of  the 
past.  We  have  the  cheering  promise  of  seed-time  and  har- 
vest while  mortal  life  is  prolonged.  Seed-time  has  never 
failed.  If  the  fruit-harvest  is  cut  off,  we  must  look  for  the 
cause  of  such  a  failure  in  the  system  of  management  adopt- 
ed in  the  production  and  care  of  the  trees. 

Many  of  the  wise  pomologists  of  America  are  beginning 
to  wake  up  to  a  proper  appreciation  of  the  serious  mistake 
of  their  fathers  in  denuding  their  farms  of  the  last  acre  of 
forest-trees;  and  many  are  beginning  to  repair  this  great 
injury  done  by  the  stupid  managers,  by  establishing  belts 
of  deciduous  and  evergreen  trees  entirely  around  their 
farms,  to  protect  not  only  their  fruit-trees,  vines,  and  bush- 
es, from  the  scathing  influence  of  cold  winds,  but  with  a 
view  of  shielding  the  winter  crops  of  the  field  from  the 
same  influences  which  have  nearly  cut  off  "  the  staff  of  life  " 
in  those  localities  where  bountiful  crops  of  golden  grain 
were  harvested,  so  long  as  the  tender  wheat-plants  were 
protected  from  the  drying  and  withering  influences  of  cold 
winds  by  the  surrounding  forests. 

Management  of  Girdled  Trees. — The   true  way  in   the 


214 


THE  APPLE  CULTUmST. 


Fig.  79. 


raaDagement  of  orchards  is  not  to  have  any 
trees  girdled.  But  sometimes  mice,  sheep, 
pestiferous  goats,  or  rabbits,  will  gain  access 
to  fruit-trees,  and  girdle  the  bodies  in  a  few 
minutes.  A  friend  of  mine  in  Central-New 
York,  who  has  several  thousand  fruit-trees, 
had  over  one  thousand  young  standard  trees 
completely  girdled  by  mice  during  the  latter 
A  stem  ofa  tree  that  part  of  March,  while  a  deep  snow  was  lyins: 

has  been  girdled  ^  '  ^  J      & 

by  mice.  on  the  ground.     Previous  to  that  time  the 

mice  had  never  injured  a  tree.     Some  of  the  trees,  which 

were  from  one  to  two  inches  in  diameter,  pig.  gi. 

were  girdled  over  a  space  of  six  inches 

above  the  surface  of  the  ground.     Such 

casualties  are  of  frequent  occurrence.    His 

trees  were  all  saved  but  sixty;  and  those 
would  have  survived  if 
they  had  not  been  sub- 
mitted to  a  bungler. 
The  accompanying  il- 
lustration (Fig.  81) 
will  show  how  the 
girdled  portions  were 
bridged  with  pieces  of 

^t^^^r\2^  living  branches  taken 

gnawed  by  mice.  ^^^^      ^^^      tree-topS. 

The  main  idea  is  to  insert  four  or  more 
pieces  of  live  branches  in  the  stem  of  the 
tree,  with  one  end  above  the  girdle,  and 
the  other  end  below  it,  so  as  to  maintain 
the  connection  between  roots  and  stem, 
which  has  been  cut  off  by  the  removal  of 
the  bark.     In  many  parts  of  the  country  a  young  tree  four  years 

„   ,  _       .  ,  ,  after  the  girdle  was 

neld-mice  are   so  numerous   that,  unless    bridged. 


Fig.  80. 


THE  FAILURE  OF  ORCHARDS,  AND  ITS  REMEDY.     215 

fruit-trees  are  protected  by  some  effectual  means,  they  will 
gnaw  nearly  every  particle  of  green  bark  from  the  body  of 
the  tree,  for  several  inches  from  the  ground;  and  some- 
times, when  deep  snow  is  piled  high  around  fruit  trees, 
mice  will  dig  holes  through  the  drifts  until  they  arrive  at 
the  trees,  and  girdle  them  several  feet  from  the  ground. 
Mice  seldom  gnaw  trees  that  are  not  surrounded  by  a  bank 
of  snow  at  least  several  inches  deep.  They  never  work 
above  the  snow,  nor  girdle  a  tree  that  is  not  surrounded 
with  grass  or  some  other  material  that  will  serve  as  a  pro- 
tection to  them  while  they  are  committing  their  depreda- 
tions. Trees  that  stand  so  exposed  to  the  wind  that  all  the 
snow,  grass,  leaves,  and  other  rubbish  will  be  swept  away, 
are  never  in  danger  of  being  injured  by  mice. 

The  usual  means  employed  to  protect  trees  from  mice 
consists  in  raising  a  mound  of  earth  around  each  tree  a 
foot  or  more  high,  as  shown  by  Fig.  68,  p.  166.  As  the 
marauders  work  along  beneath  the  grass  or  snow,  the  bank 
of  earth  turns  them  away  from  the  tree.  When  trees  are 
standing  in  grass-yards  or  lawns,  where  the  earth  is  smooth 
around  the  bodies,  sods  may  be  transported  from  some 
other  place  and  fitted  closely  to  the  trees,  and  then  re- 
moved before  the  growing  season  commences.  If  the  snow 
falls  deep  around  trees,  or  drifts  are  formed  around  the 
bodies,  by  stamping  the  snow  all  around  the  trunk  of  each 
tree,  mice  will  turn  away  from  the  snow  that  has  been 
packed  closely,  and  not  dig  a  road  through  to  the  tree. 
These  remedies  have  been  found  effectual,  for  many  years 
past,  wherever  the  means  have  been  employed.  But  the 
labor  of  packing  the  snow,  when  it  is  deep,  around  all  the 
trees  above  the  mound  of  earth  is  often  neglected,  to  the 
ruin  of  many  trees. 

Another  remedy,  which  has  recently  been  employed  with 
sati|^ctory  success,  is  winding  coarse  paper  or  old  cloth 


216  THE  APPLE  CULTUBIST.       . 

around  each  tree,  securing  it  with  small  twine,  and  after- 
wards smearing  the  outside  with  a  coat  of  coal-tar  or  pitch. 
If  the  tar  were  applied  to  the  bark  of  the  trees,  no  animal 
would  gnaw  the  bark.  But  coal-tar  is  so  poisonous  to  trees 
and  plants  that,  unless  the  bark  is  very  thick,  it  will  soon 
destroy  all  the  vitality  of  the  bark.  Two  thicknesses  of 
coarse  brown  paper  will  absorb  a  heavy  coat  of  tar,  so  that 
none  of  it  will  reach  the  bark,  nor  adhere  to  any  thing  that 
might  come  in  contact  with  it.  Paper  tarred  after  it  has 
been  put  around  trees  will  secure  the  bark  from  being 
gnawed  off  by  goats,  sheep,  rabbits,  and  all  other  animals. 
As  soon  as  the  growing  season  has  commenced,  the  tarred 
paper  may  be  removed,  although  there  is  no  danger  that  it 
will  injure  a  growing  tree  were  it  kept  around  it  during 
the  summer.  This  manner  of  protecting  trees  from  almost 
every  foe  will  not  cost  over  two  to  four  cents  per  tree. 

Meadow  Mce.— There  are  several  species  of  this  kind  of  mice,  some  of  which  are 
found  in  almost  every  State  in  the  Union.  We  shall  notice  only  the  Prairie-mead- 
ow Mouse  (Fig.  82,  p.  217),  the  Wood-meadow  Mouse  (Fig.  83,  p.  218),  and  the 
Long-haired  Meadow  Mouse  (Fig.  84,  p.  219),  the  female,  and  (Fig.  85,  p.  220) 
the  male.  Where  several  species  are  found  in  one  locality,  they  are  common- 
ly considered  by  farmers  as  one  animal,  known  under  various  names,  as  Short- 
tailed  Field  Rats  or  Mice,  Bear  Mice,  Bull-headed  Mice,  Ground  Mice,  Bog  Mice, 
etc.,  while  many  persons  call  them  moles,  though  they  are  not  in  the  least  related 
to  that  family.  The  food  and  general  habits  of  the  diflerent  species  are  much 
alike,  though  some  prefer  high  and  others  wet  ground ;  while  others  inhabit  the 
woods,  prairies,  etc.  All  the  species  burrow,  and  none  climb  trees.  Their  com- 
mon food  is  the  grasses  and  other  herbaceous  plants,  their  seeds  and  roots,  and 
the  seeds  and  acorns,  as  well  as  the  bark  of  trees,  in  the  woods,  with  grain  and 
vegetables,  when  inhabiting  cultivated  fields.  Some  kinds,  at  least,  lay  up  stores 
of  food  for  winter.  All  are  active  at  this  time,  moving  about  in  the  coldest  weath- 
er, and  never  hibernate  like  marmots.  One  characteristic,  certainly,  possessed  by 
all  the  species  in  common,  is  their  ability  to  destroy  the  products  of  the  farm.  In 
a  nursery,  where  apple-seeds  were  planted  in  autumn,  I  have  observed  that,  during 
fall  and  spring,  so  many  of  the  seeds  were  dug  up  by  these  mice  as  to  leave  long 
gaps  in  the  rows  of  seedlings,  the  empty  shells  of  the  seeds  being  found  lying 
about  the  rows  from  which  they  had  been  taken.  They  congregate  in  stacks  of 
grain  and  hay,  sometimes  in  exceedingly  great  numbers,  destroying  all  the  lower 
parts,  by  cutting  galleries  through  them  in  every  direction. 

The  greatest  mischieif  done  by  meadow  mice  is  the  gnawing  of  bark  from 
fruit-trees.  The  complaints  are  constant  and  grievous,  throughout  the  Northern 
States,  of  the  destruction  of  orchard  and  nursery-trees  by  the  various  species  of 
arvicolse.  The  entire  damage  done  by  them  in  this  way  may  be  estimated,  per- 
haps, at  millions  of  dollars.    This  is  especially  the  case  at  the  West,  where  i^care 


THE  FAILUBE  OF  ORCHARDS,  AND  ITS  REMEDY.    217 


is  taken  to  protect  the  trees 
against  them,  careless  or- 
chardists  allowing  grass  to 
grow  about  the  roots  of 
their  fruit-trees,  and  thus 
kindly  furnishing  the  arvic- 
olse  with  excellent  nesting- 
places  in  winter,  and  ren- 
dering the  trees  doubly  lia- 
ble to  be  girdled.  In  the 
nurseries  in  Northern  Illi- 
nois, we  have  seen  whole 
rows  of  .young  apple-trees 
stripped  of  their  bark  for 
a  foot  or  two  above  the 
ground.  Thousands  of 
fruit-trees,  as  well  as  ever- 
greens and  other  ornament- 
al trees  and  shrubs,  are  at 
times  thus  killed  in  a  nurs- 
ery in  one  winter.  The 
mice  are  most  mischievous 
in  winters  of  deep  snow. 
One  reason  why  fruit-trees 
are  most  girdled  in  times  of 
deep  snow  is,  that  the  mead- 
ow mice  can  then  better 
move  about,  at  a  distance 
from  their  burrows,  being 
protected  by  the  snow,  un- 
der which  they  construct  nu- 
merous pathways,  and  are 
thus  enabled  to  travel  com- 
fortably in  search  of  food, 
always  to  be  obtained  in 
abundance  where  there  is 
any  kind  of  perennial  grass, 
or  the  seeds  of  annual 
plants.  Aided  by  the  snow, 
too,  they  climb  up  at  the 
sides  of  the  trees  to  gnaw 
the  bark  at  a  considerable 
height  from  the  ground. 
Rabbits  are  often  accused 
of  gnawing  bark  from  trees, 
when  the  mischief  has  real- 
ly been  done  by  meadow  mice.  All  the  species  alluded  to  are  exceedingly  pro- 
lific. When  unmolested,  the  female  will  frequently  rear  three  litters  in  one  sea- 
son, and  each  litter  will  frequently  number  six  or  seven  young  mice.  The  male 
Prairie-meadow  Mice  are  always  very  pugnacious,  biting  and  striking  at  any  thing 
thrust  towards  them.  When  much  teased  in  this  way,  they  sometimes  turn  on 
their  backs,  snap  with  their  teeth,  and  strike  with  all  four  feet.  When  enraged, 
they  utter  a  low,  harsh,  creaking  note,  resembling  that  of  a  very  young  puppy.  If 
hurt,  their  voices  are  clearer  and  sharper.  Sometimes  they  chatter  their  teeth  in 
anger. 
The  males  of  nearly  every  species,  when  they  can  not  escape  into  some  secure 

10 


218 


THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 


refuge  when  attacked  by  persons,  will  attack  their  aggressors  with  great  fierce- 
ness. We  have  often  extended  the  toe  of  one  boot  into  the  fore-front  of  the  battle, 
when  an  infuriated  mouse  was  the  invading  foe,  and  the  plucky  little  fighter  would 
leave  the  prints  of  his  sharp  teeth  in  the  leather.  Thus  much  for  the  natural  his- 
tory of  the  foregoing  species  of  mice.  The  chief  practical  consideration  is,  how 
to  prevent  their  ravages  ? 

Meadow  mice  of  all  kinds  have  numerous  enemies.  All  kinds  of  hawks  cap- 
ture a  great  many.  Cats  destroy  large  numbers  ;  and  skunks,  when  they  can  find 
a  nest  of  young  ones,  will  devour  an  entire  litter.    They  often  construct  their 

nests  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  in  the  grass,  in 
stone-heaps,  beneath  boards 
and  pieces  of  rails,  in  old 
ant  -  hills,  beneath  old 
stumps,  and  in  the  ground. 
Hence,  every  farmer  and 
gardener  should  keep  sev- 
eral active  cats  —  not  old 
and  indolent  pussies  — but 
young  and  fierce  mousers, 
which  should  be  fed  well 
every  day  with  milk.  A 
young  female  cat  is  far  bet- 
ter than  a  male  ;  and  if  the 
female  be  allowed  to  rear 
two  or  three  kittens,  she 
will  destroy  large  numbers 
of  mice.  A  well-fed  female 
cat  will  catch  more  mice, 
when  well  fed  on  milk  and 
fragments  from  the  table, 
than  if  she  be  compelled  to 
subsist  wholly  on  mice.  If 
a  cat  be  allowed  to  rear  two 
kittens,  she  will  hnnt  mice 
a  large  proportion  of  the 
time ;  whereas,  if  her  kit- 
tens be  killed  soon  after 
their  birth,  pussy  will  have 
but  little  inclination  to  hunt 
mice. 

The  refuges  of  mice  must 
be  destroyed.  Let  all  the 
old  pieces  of  rails  and  bark 
be  placed  on  end,  and  let 
old  log-heaps  and  piles  of 
brush  be  burned,  so  that 
cats  and  other  animals  can 
seize  them  before  they  can 
reach  a  refuge.  When  mice 
are  met  with  in  meadows, 
and  when  one  is  ploughing, 
let  every  one  be  killed. 
When  old  rail-fences  have 
settled  down  close  to  the 
ground,  and  the  tall  grass 


THE  FAILURE  OF  ORCHARDS,  AND  ITS  REMEDY.     219 


has  fallen  down  in  the 
nooks,  mice  want  no 
better  refuge.  Hence, 
let  the  fence  be  lifted 
with  a  lever,  and  a  large 
stone  or  block  of  wood 
placed  beneath  each 
corner;  and  let  the 
dead  grass  be  raked 
into  heaps  for  manure. 
Mice  frequently  burrow 
among  the  stones  of  un- 
der-drains,  and  there 
build  their  nests  and 
propagate.  In  such  in- 
stances, let  old  nail- 
kegs,  fish-kegs,  old  but- 
ter-firkins, and  barrels 
be  sunk  in  the  ground, 
so  that  the  top  will  be 
even  with  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  A  large 
number  of  mice  will  be 
trapped  in  such  recep- 
tacles, as  they  will  jump 
in  and  can  not  climb 
out.  Boxes  two  feet 
deep  may  also  be  set  in 
the  ground  as  traps  for 
mice.  Cats  will  take 
them  from  such  traps, 
or  they  can  be  speared 
with  a  fork.  It  is  an  ex- 
cellent practice  to  sink 
several  barrels  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  an  orchard. 
Let  two  or  three  holes, 
one  and  a  half  inches 
in  diameter,  be  bored 
through  the  staves  about 
eight  inches  from  the 
upper  end ;  then  let  the 
barrel  be  sunk  in  the 
ground,  so  that  the  holes 
will  be  even  with  the 
surface.     The  mice  vdll 

be  attracted  to  the  barrels  in  the  night  and  enter  the  holes.  In  addition  to  all  the 
foregoing  suggestions,  we  have  found  it  an  excellent  practice  to  set  a  few  sheaves 
of  corn-stalks  in  round  shocks  at  different  parts  of  the  orchard,  beneath  which  a 
few  nubbins  of  corn  were  placed.  The  tops  of  the  stalks  were  bound  so  tightly  that 
the  entire  shock  could  be  lifted  by  one  man  from  the  ground.  In  cold  weather  the 
nocturnal  marauders  would  leave  their  haunts  and  collect  beneath  the  shocks  of 
stalks.  Every  day  we  would  lift  the  stalks  and  let  the  cat  take  the  victims.  There 
are  some  other  ways  of  exterminating  meadow  mice ;  but  none  are  more  conven- 
ient and  effectual  than  those  alluded  to.  The  war  with  mice  must  be  waged  unre- 
mittingly during  the  entire  year.    Meadow  mice  often  do  great  damage  in  under- 


220 


THE  APPLE  CULTUBIST. 


drains.  When  large  numbers  come  from  adjoining  woods  to  a  field  of  grain, 
or  towards  an  orchard,  let  several  barrels  be  sunk  in  the  ground,  as  suggested, 
between  the  woods  and  the  orchard.  If  water  settles  in  the  barrels,  all  the  better 
they  will  be  for  mice-traps,  if  a  few  leaves  and  some  grass  be  strewed  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  water. 

When  an  orchard  is  located  near  the  forest,  where  mice  and  rabbits  abound,  the 
only  reliable  means  of  protecting  trees  is  represented  p.  166.  Before  cold  weather 
has  sealed  the  surface  of  the  ground,  a  quantity  of  sti'ong  paper  should  be  procured 
and  wrapped  around  the  trees,  as  already  directed.  This  job  should  not  be  neg- 
lected, with  a  view  of  doing  it  at  some  convenient  period  in  the  winter.  In  case 
a  deep  snow  should  fall,  mice  may  ruin  half  the  trees  in  a  single  day.    If  coarse 

canvas  or  old  sail- 
cloth can  be  obtain- 
ed, such  material  will 
be  preferable  to  pa- 
per ;  and  if  removed 
with  care  from  the 
trees,  the  pieces  may 
be  used  many  years. 
In  some  instances 
the  wood  -  meadow 
mice  have  made 
a  general  stampede 
from  a  near  forest. 

Naturalists  have 
described  numerous 
species  of  field-mice. 
There  are  over  twen- 
ty species  of  the  Ar- 
vicola  avsterus  (Prai- 
rie-meadow Mouse). 
In  many  instances 
owls  destroy  large 
numbers.  Hawks  will 
spy  them  from  a  dis- 
tance as  they  soar 
through  the  air,  and 
will  dart  down  and 
swoop  up  their  prey 
with  surprising  agil- 
ity. We  have  fre- 
quently seen  a  hawk 
dart  from  the  top  of 
some  tree  in  the  open 
field  and  swoop  up  a 
mouse  more  than  two 
hundred  feet  distant 
from  the  tree.  Snakes 
also  devour  more  or 
less  of  these  pests 
of  the  orchard  and 
grain  -  fields.  Yet 
field-mice  are  so  pro- 
lific that  all  their 
foes  united  do  not 
exterminate  them. 


THE  FAILURE  OF  ORCHAMDS,  AND  ITS  REMEDY.    221 

Culture  of  Apple-trees  on  Prairies. — A  great  many  per- 
sons, who  pass  for  shrewd  and  intelligent  men,  do  not  hesi- 
tate to  affirm  that  apples  can  not  be  grown  with  satisfac- 
tory success  on  the  Western  Prairies ;  and  they  will  point 
to  the  untold  number  of  failures  on  the  prairies  as  incon- 
trovertible evidence  that  their  assumptions  are  reliable. 
Yet  our  doctrine  is,  that  bountiful  crops  of  apples  can  be 
grown  on  any  ground  that  will  yield  fair  crops  of  wheat, 
provided  the  trees  are  produced  and  cultivated  as  directed  . 
in  the  former  part  of  this  book. 

Dr.  J.  A.  Warden,  who  is  accepted  authority  at  the 
West,  states,  in  the  "  Prairie  Farmer  Annual,"  that  it  has 
been  too  much  the  custom,  in  many  portions  of  the  West, 
to  accept  as  true  the  oft-repeated  dogma  that  orchards  can 
not  be  grown  on  the  prairies.  It  is  surprising  that  such  a 
notion  should  still  prevail  among  many  of  our  large  farm- 
ers, since  the  contrary  has  been  so  fully  proved  in  every 
county,  and  in  almost  every  township.  The  failures,  in  al- 
most every  locality,  maybe  traced  to  some,  or  to  all  of  the 
following  causes:  1st.  The  bad  condition  of  the  trees  plants 
ed;  2d.  The  bad  selection  of  varieties;  3d.  The  want  of 
suitable  preparation  of  the  soil;  4th.  Bad  planting,  and 
want  of  suitable  cultivation  and  training;  5th.  Exposure 
to  the  elements,  and  to  the  depredations  of  stock  and  wild 
animals. 

This  bad  condition  of  the  trees  may  arise  from  the  dan- 
gers or  delays  of  long  transportation ;  from  carelessness  in 
handling  and  defective  packing ;  from  frosts,  when  exposed 
to  the  air ;  or  simply  from  drying  of  the  roots,  when  care- 
lessly exposed,  after  they  have  been  received.  It  is  unfor- 
tunately true,  also,  that  some  nursery-trees  are  badly  grown, 
especially  when  they  have  been  much  crowded,  and  when 
the  nurseryman  has  injudiciously  sacrificed  stockiness  foj* 
height.    Thus  the  blame  is  distributed  all  the  way  from  a 


222  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

proper  selection  of  the  apple-seeds  to  the  final  operation  in 
the  management  of  the  bearing  trees.  Bad  selection  of  va- 
rieties has  been  a  frequent  source  of  failure  in  attempts  to 
establish  Western  orchards.  It  was  most  natural  for  men 
to  desire,  in  their  new  homes,  the  same  fruits  to  which  they 
had  been  accustomed  in  their  old  ones.  Hence,  they  intro- 
duced chiefly  the  varieties  of  New  England,  many  of  which 
have  proved  worthless  on  the  prairies ;  and,  strange  to  say, 
some  of  those  which  have  suffered  most  from  winter-killing 
originated  in  the  Eastern  States ;  while  some  of  the  most 
hardy  varieties  have  come  from  the  South.  The  labors  of 
Western  pomologists  have  at  length  enabled  us  to  select 
lists  of  hardy  varieties  that  have  withstood  the  severe  or- 
deals of  such  winters  as  those  of  1856  and  1863. 

The  want  of  suitable  preparation  of  the  soil  has  been  a 
too  common  explanation  of  the  failures  complained  of,  par- 
ticularly the  want  of  drainage  in  low  and  flat  lands,  with  a 
retentive  subsoil.  This  is  a  matter  which  can  be  soon 
overcome  with  the  progress  of  agriculture.  The  opening 
of  the  country,  the  introduction  of  thorough  drainage,  and 
the  perfecting  of  the  surface-drainage,  will  enable  farmers 
to  grow  orchards  where  they  have  previously  failed.  Peo- 
ple must  learn  that  the  ground  must  be  well  prepared  for 
the  orchard,  as  for  any  other  farm  crop ;  that  the  trees 
need  cultivation,  especially  while  they  are  young ;  and  when 
older,  that  they  require  the  sole  occupancy  of  the  ground. 
At  the  same  time,  it  will  be  generally  understood  that  Na- 
ture should  be  aided  and  directed  in  the  formation  of  the 
trees  by  judicious  training  and  pruning.  Trees  planted  out 
in  the  open  prairies,  exposed  to  the  winds,  sunshine,  and 
storms,  without  any  protection,  must  be  expected  to  suffer 
in  the  change  from  the  sheltered  nursery-plat  on  which  they 
were  produced,  and  that,  perhaps,  in  a  different  soil  and  cli- 
mate, certainly  under  very  different  conditions  from  those 


THE  FAILURE  OP  OECHARDS,  AND  ITU  REMEDY.     223 

of  the  open  field.  If,  in  addition  to  this,  they  be  so  neglect- 
ed as  to  suffer  from  the  attacks  of  mice,  gophers,  or  rab- 
bits, and  to  the  inroads  of  animals  of  larger  growth,  so  as  to 
be  barked  by  mules  or  sheep,  and  browsed  upon  or  broken 
down  by  horned  cattle,  we  need  not  wonder  at  the  state- 
ments that  have  been  made  regarding  the  impossibility  of 
growing  orchards  in  the  prairie. 

Another  prominent  peculiarity  in  the  lands  appropriated 
to  orcharding  in  the  Western  country  consists  in  their  gen 
eral  flatness.  This  necessitates  their  open  exposure  to  the 
winds,  which  sweep  with  great  force  across  the  plains ;  and 
when  the  dew-point  is  low,  evaporation  from  all  living  tis- 
sues is  greatly  increased,  which  causes  the  trees  to  dry 
away  fearfully.  The  same  flatness  of  the  laud  favors  the 
accumulation  of  surface-water,  which  makes  the  ground 
wet  and  clammy,  requiring  judicious  efforts  to  effect  suit- 
able drainage  over  extensive  tracts  of  country.  It  is  emi- 
nently important  that  such  flat  land,  where  the  subsoil  is  of 
a  retentive  character,  should  be  thoroughly  under-drained. 
Under-draining,  in  many  instances,  is  the  only  requirement 
to  insure  the  success  of  apple  culture. 

When  the  land  is  very  flat,  if  it  has  not  been  under- 
drained,  it  will  be  well  to  plough  it  in  lands,  gathering  the 
furrows  repeatedly  on  the  same  line,  so  as  to  ridge  the  sur- 
face as  high  as  possible  where  the  trees  are  to  stand,  so  that 
the  dead-furrows  will  make  an  open  ditch  for  the  water, 
and  the  gather-furrows  raise  the  roots  of  the  trees*  above 
general  water-level.  These  ridges  and  furrows  should  be 
made  in  the  direction  of  the  slope  of  the  natural  surface,  if 
any  can  be  detected ;  otherwise  the  ditches  must  be  made 
deeper  at  one  end  than  the  other.  It  is  rarely  the  case  that 
the  surface-water  will  not  find  an  outflow  at  one  end  or  the 
other  of  a  ten-acre  field.  Towards  this  the  ridges  and  fur- 
rows should  extend.     Besides  the  foregoing  considerations, 


224  THE  APPLE  CULTUEIST. 

orchards  on  the  prairies  must  be  shielded  by  belts  of  ever- 
greens during  the  severity  of  winter.  By  heeding  all  the 
suggestions  alluded  to  in  the  preceding  paragraphs,  and 
particularly  the  directions  laid  down  in  Chapter  I.,  a  failure 
of  an  apple-orchard  will  be  of  rare  occurrence.   >'' 

Cause  of  Barrenness  in  Apple-trees. — Barrenness  and  in- 
different productiveness  of  apple-trees  arise  from  numerous 
causes.  In  most  instances,  the  difficulty  is  in  the  barren 
soil  rather  than  in  a  tree.  Yet,  when  a  part  of  the  trees 
are  productive,  the  evidence  is  conclusive  that  the  fault  is 
in  the  tree.  In  many  instances,  some  of  the  largest  trees 
in  the  orchard  rarely  yield  a  bushel  of  fruit,  while  those  on 
either  side  of  them  yield  abundant  crops.  Dr.  Hull,  an 
eminent  pomologist,  states  that  apple-trees  that  expend  all 
their  forces  in  the  production  of  wood-growth  can  produce 
little  or  no  fruit.  Indeed,  it  is  not  possible  for  any  tree  to 
produce  a  fruit  germ,  and  not  again  in  some  way  disor- 
ganize it,  unless  the  wood-growth  shall  cease  in  time  for 
the  leaves  to  elaborate  food  enough  to  grow  both  leaf  and 
fruit  the  following  year,  or  until  a  part  of  the  leaves  shall 
attain  to  nearly  or  quite  their  full  size.  That  this  is  so,  will 
be  apparent  when  we  consider  that  the  leaves  which  first 
appear  in  the  spring  were  formed  in  the  bud  the  previous 
year,  perfect  in  all  their  parts,  and  in  the  embryo  state  con- 
tained each  individual  cell  found  in  them  when  fully  grown. 
In  order  to  produce  an  abundant  crop  of  fruit,  the  exten- 
sion of  the  shoots  must  cease  a  long  time  before  the  end  of 
the  growing  season,  so  that  the  wood  may  mature  and  the 
fruit-buds  develop. 

The  question  may  arise,  if  there  is  no  addition  to  the 
number  of  cells,  how  do  the  leaves  grow  ?  The  answer  is, 
that  the  only  difference  we  can  see,  between  an  embryo  leaf 
and  one  fully  grown,  is  in  the  size  of  the  leaf-cells.  As 
growth  begins  in  the  spring,  these  small  cells,  which  were 


THE  FAILURE  OF  OUCHARDJS,  AJVB  ITS  REMEDY.    225 

formed  in  the  previous  year,  begin  to  expand.  Each  in- 
dividual cell  thus  enlarges,  until  all  the  numerous  cells  of 
which  these  leaves  are  composed  are  of  full  size.  To  fur- 
ther illustrate  this,  let  us  suppose,  in  a  brick  wall,  that  each 
brick  at  the  same  time  was  gradually  to  expand  to  several 
hundred  times  its  present  diameter,  and  you  have  just  what 
takes  place  in  the  growth  of  an  embryo  leaf.  Here  we  have 
a  tree  in  possession  of  a  full-grown  leaf.  This  leaf  did  not 
form  itself,  but  was  formed  by  the  tree  in  the  preceding 
year.  To  produce  and  sustain  this  cellular  enlargement, 
there  had  been  stored,  the  previous  year,  a  large  share  of 
nutriment  in  the  buds  and  in  other  parts  of  the  tree.  This 
nutriment  must  not  only  be  sufficient  to  feed  the  embryo 
leaves,  but  must  also  be  sufficient  to  produce  the  small 
warty  excrescences  —  the  rootlets  and  spongioles.  These 
new  leaves  and  spongioles  are  a  tree's  laboratory.  And 
those  leaves  and  spongioles  first  grown  were  made,  with 
the  exception  of  moisture,  wholly  out  of  the  materials  that 
were  stored  by  the  tree  during  the  growth  of  the  previous 
year.  When  these  vegetable  stores  are  in  sufficient  supply 
to  do  this,  and  nourish  the  fruit  germs  also,  then  we  shall 
hear  little  about  imperfect  fertilization.  On  the  other  hand, 
had  the  food  been  consumed  the  previous  year,  by  ripening 
an  over-crop  of  fruit,  or  by  making  a  very  succulent  growth, 
then  the  tree  would  not  store  a  sufficient  amount  of  plant- 
food  to  perform  its  threefold  office  in  the  production  of 
leaves,  roots  with  their  spongioles,  and  fruit.  In  this  con- 
dition, a  part  of  the  leaf,  and  a  larger  part  of  all  the  fruit- 
buds,  yield  up  their  nourishment,  which  goes  to  the  produc- 
tion of  root  and  leaf  growth.  The  tree,  therefore,  is  barren 
of  fruit  for  the  summer,  its  whole  growth  being  required 
to  recuperate  its  own  vigor.  Such  trees  often  bloom  freely, 
and  then  cast  their  blossoms.  When  this  occurs,  unin- 
formed persons  often  attribute  its  barrenness  to  want  of 

10* 


226  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

fertilization,  or  suppose  that  the  rain  has  washed  away  the 
pollen.  When  an  apple-tree  ripens  its  wood  early  in  the 
season,  and  ceases  to  grow  late  in  autumn,  if  the  soil  is  fer- 
tile, the  fault  is  in  the  tree ;  and  the  sooner  it  is  removed, 
the  more  satisfactory  it  will  be  for  the  propvietor.  Some 
trees  are  naturally  poor  bearers,  or  no  bearers  at  all,  and 
they  can  never  be  made  to  yield  a  crop  of  fruit. 


FENOUILLET  JATTNB. 

SyTumyrm.—'DrKp  d'Or,  Pomme  de  Charact^re,  Embroidered  Pippin,  and  Cloth 
of  Gold.  This  beautiful  apple  is  of  French  origin.  The  fruit  is  covered  usually 
with  a  yellow  gray  russety  net-work.  The  stem  is  beautifully  dotted  with  small 
dark  specks  ;  slender,  and  in  some  specimens  short  and  stout.  The  basin  is  shal- 
low; taste,  sub-acid,  and  fine-flavored.  Season,  early  autumn,  continuing  until 
cold  weather ;  tree,  vigorous,  regular,  and  spreading,  and  a  prolific  bearer.  This 
beautiful  variety  has  not  as  yet  been  introduced  and  cultivated  except  by  a  small 
number  of  pomological  amateurs.  We  have  never  seen  the  fruit  in  the  New  York 
market.  A  few  nurserymen  who  cultivate  rare  varieties,  have  grafted  a  few  trees 
with  cions  taken  from  a  "  Cloth  of  Gold  "  tree.  By  communicating  with  gentle- 
men who  cultivate  extensive  nurseries  near  New  York  city,  or  Kochester,  or  Chi- 
cago, 111.,  a  few  cions  or  young  trees  may  readily  be  obtained.  By  means  of  su- 
perior cultivation,  the  size  may  be  greatly  augmented. 


EXTERMINATING  NOXIOUS  INSECTS.  227 


CHAPTER  YIII. 

EXTERMINATING  NOXIOUS    INSECTS   FROM   APPLE-ORCHARDS. 

The  army-worm,  canker-worm,  palmer-worm,  slugs, 

The  joint-worm,  the  drop-worm,  the  borer,  and  bugs, 

Like  rapacious  armies,  when  seizing  their  prey. 

United,  spread  ruin  through  branches  and  spray.— Edwaeds. 

The  Increase  of  noxious  Insects. — It  has  been  affirmed 
by  some  pomologists  and  tillers  of  the  soil  that  in  propor- 
tion as  we  increase  improved  fruits,  just  in  that  propor- 
tion will  fruit-insects,  and  fruit  and  fruit-tree  diseases  in- 
crease. A  recognition  of  this  fact  will  each  year,  as  we 
multiply  orchards,  become  more  and  more  apparent.  Hale's 
Early  peaches,  at  first,  will  be  free  from  rot.  Pear-trees 
will  bQ  measurably  exempt  from  pear-tree  blight;  vines 
free  from  Vine-hoppers,  and  grapes  free  from  Grape-cod- 
lings and  rot.  From  some  cause  not  yet  well  understood, 
all,  or  nearly  all,  our  young  vineyards  are,  for  the  first  few 
years  of  fruitage,  free  from  rot ;  and  then  ever  afterwards 
subject  to  it.  The  same  is  true  of  cherry,  peach,  and  plum 
rot.  Therefore,  to  those  engaging  in  pomological  pursuits, 
a  knowledge  of  the  several  difficulties  likely  to  be  encoun- 
tered should  be  recognized ;  and,  so  far  as  known,  the  rem- 
edies for  each  difficulty  must  be  promptly  applied.  For 
many  years  past,  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  people  who 
attempt  to  grow  fruit  have  been  careful  to  exterminate  one- 
fourth  part  of  the  noxious  worms  and  insects  on  their  prem- 
ises. Hence  they  have  multiplied  with  surprising  rapidity. 
Consequently,  as  orchards  and  crops  of  fruit  have  increased, 
and  insects  have  been  allowed  to  flourish  unmolested  where 


228  V  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

they  found  congenial  quarters,  it  has  frequently  appeared 
that  the  increase  has  been  without  a  parallel.  But  noxious 
insects  are  sometimes  an  incentive  to  prompt  indifferent 
pomologists  to  dispute  their  right  to  the  growing  fruit. 
The  "American  Entomologist"  affirms  that  more  than  two 
dozen  species  of  noxious  insects — among  which  the  varie- 
ties are  unknown,  as  to  numbers — are  now  met  with  as 
formidable  depredators  in  the  apple-orchards  of  many  of 
the  States.  Some  subsist  upon  the  root ;  some  burrow  into 
the  trunk;  some  infest  the  bark;  some  select  the  opening 
buds ;  some  devour  the  expanded  foliage ;  and  others,  final- 
ly, revel  upon  the  fruit.  Thus  beset  by  enemies  on  every 
side,  it  would  seem  that  the  good  old  apple-tree  must  ere 
long  succumb,  and  cease  to  occupy  its  place  in  the  family 
of  plants ;  and  this  would  undoubtedly  be  the  case  if  all 
these  enemies  were  permitted  to  go  on  unchecked  in  their 
operations.  But  owing  to  the  incessant  antagonism  of 
parasitic  foes,  insectivorous  birds,  and  human  ingenuity, 
the  ravages  of  these  insects  are  kept  within  bounds,  and 
the  apple-tree  still  lives.  Of  these  numerous  enemies  of 
the  apple-tree,  five  hold  a  bad  pre-eminence — namely,  the 
Round-headed  Borer  {Saperda  Mvittata),  the  Oyster-shell 
Bark-louse  (Aspidiotus  conchifonnis),  the  Canker-worm 
{Anisopteryx  vernata),  the  Tent-caterpillar  {Clisiocampa 
Americana)^  and  the  Apple-worm  {Garpocapsa pomonella). 
Of  these  the  most  conspicuous,  and  in  some  seasons  and  lo- 
calities the  most  destructive,  is  the  insect  generally  known 
as  the  Tent-caterpillar  (Fig.  95,  p.  253). 

The  true  Way  to  exterminate  Depredators. — We  might 
swell  this  volume  to  hundreds  of  pages  touching  the  natu- 
ral history,  habits,  and  metamorphoses  of  noxious  insects, 
worms,  and  caterpillars,  all  of  which  would  be  interesting 
and  instructive;  but  the  great  practical  consideration  is, 
will  such  a  fund  of  information  render  any  practical  aid  in 


EXTERMINATING  NOXIOUS  INSECTS.  229 

saving  fruit  and  fruit-trees  from  the  ravages  of  such  depre- 
dators?   Well-conduQted  experiments  have  been  made  so 
frequently,  to  repel  insects,  worms,  and  caterpillars,  that  it 
is  safe  to  assume  that  fruit  of  nearly  every  kind  must  be 
saved,  while  growing,  by  active  vigilance  on  the  part  of  po- 
mologists.     New  depredators  have  been  visiting  our  fruit- 
trees  every  season  for  a  number  of  years  past ;  and  for  years 
to  come  others,  now  unknown,  will  probably  appear.    There 
may  be  some  remedy  discovered  to  head  them  off ;  but  the 
most  reliable  one  of  all  will  be  to  "  catch  'em  and  kill  'em." 
It  would  seem,  in  many  instances,  as  if  the  caterpillars,  the 
Army-worm,  the  Canker-worm,  and  numerous  other  depre- 
dators that  subsist  on  the  leaves  of  apple-trees,  would  cut 
off  the  entire  apple-crop, if  we  do  not  "catch  'em  and  kill 
'em."     The  Tent-caterpillar,  in  many  instances,  is  "  doing 
his  level  best"  to  devour  every  leaf  on  apple  and  cherry 
trees.     There  is  no  possible  way  to  prevent  their  ravages, 
unless  we  "  catch  'em  and  kill  'em."    Entomologists  may  pen 
interesting  paragraphs  about  the  origin,  hibernation,  met- 
amorphoses, and  the  habits  of  noxious  insects  and  worms, 
and  suggest  nostrums  to  repel  them  and  check  their  rav- 
ages ;  but,  after  all  that  may  be  said  or  written,  if  we  save 
our  trees  and  fruit,  in  most  instances  we  must  "  catch  'em 
and  kill  'em."     Apple-tree  Borers,  Peach-tree  Borers,  Cur- 
rant Borers,  Pear-tree  Borers,  and  borers  for  almost  every 
tree  and  plant  that  dares  to  grow,  are  incessantly  working 
their  gouge-shaped  augers  night  and  day.     Hence,  the  only 
watch-word  should  be:   "Catch  'em  and  kill  'em."     All 
through  the  growing  season,  every  employe  on  the  prem- 
ises should  be  instructed,  wherever  he  sees  a  noxious  insect 
at  work,  to  drop  all  other  employment,  and  "  catch  'em  and 
kill  'em."     We  have  tried  the  "  shoo-fly  "  remedy  quite  too 
long,  without  any  satisfactory  results.    If  we  fray  them 
away,  they  are  back  to  their  work  of  devastation  before  we 


230  THE  APPLE  CULTURIHT. 

can  return.  If  we  "catch  'em  and  kill  'em,"  they  never 
have  a  resurrection. 

Near  neighbors,  when  insects  or  depredators  of  any  kind 
are  numerous,  should  all  labor  in  concert  to  exterminate 
noxious  invaders.  So  long  as  one  or  two  persons,  having 
orchards,  neglect  to  destroy  depredators  on  their  ground, 
vigilant  pomologists  may  put  forth  their  efforts  in  vain  to 
save  their  fruit  from  the  ravages  of  the  curculio  and  cater- 
pillars. At  Vineland,  New  Jersey,  all  the  inhabitants  of 
the  town,  of  1 2,000  people,  where  they  haVe  heretofore  pro- 
duced the  finest  fruit  in  the  country,  rely  on  no  other  rem- 
edy than  to  "catch  'em  and  kill  'em."  We  may  depend 
on  the  efficacy  of  hellebore  to  destroy  the  Currant-worms ; 
but  as  yet,  no  reliable  means  have  been  found  to  keep  the 
hordes  of  insects  from  destroying  the  leaves,  the  blossoms, 
and  the  fruit  of  cherry-trees,  plum,  peach,  and  apple  trees, 
except  this — "catch  'em  and  kill  'em."  Every  pomologist 
should  instruct  those  in  his  employ  to  keep  a  watchful  eye 
for  all  manner  of  depredators,  and  to  "catch  'em  and  kill 
'em"  as  quickly  as  they  would  dispatch  a  rattlesnake.  The 
price  of  fruit  is  unremitting  vigilance  and  war  to  the  knife, 
with  the  knife  to  the  hilt.  Numerous  other  modes  have 
been  strongly  recommended,  such  as  covering  the  trees 
with  lime-wash  or  tobacco-water,  smoking  the  trees  daily, 
placing  putrid  substances  under  them,  spading-in  the  rising 
curculios,  cutting  canals  under  the  trees  to  fill  with  water, 
laying  brick  pavements,  making  mortar  floors,  and  other 
modes  hard  to  apply,  and  of  little  or  no  efficiency. 

Exterminating  Moths,  Millers,  Flies. — A  large  proportion 
of  insect  enemies  originate  from  millers  or  flies,  many  of 
which  are  seen  on  the  wing  at  evening,  or  at  any  time  at 
night.  Most  persons  understand  how  common  it  is  for  mil- 
lers to  fly  round  about  a  lighted  lamp,  and  frequently  dart 
directly  into  the  flame.     We  have  often  known  doves  and 


EXTERMINATING  NOXIOUS  INSECTS.  231 

swallows  to  fly  down  to  our  barn-lamp  when  we  have  been 
about  the  out-buildings.  This  fact  will  often  enable  po- 
mologists  to  destroy  insect  enemies  by  thousands  simply 
by  setting  a  lighted  lamp  or  candle  within  a  glass  jar,  or 
beneath  a  bell-glass,  so  as  to  attract  millers  to  the  light. 
But  all  such  glasses  must  be  open  both  at  the  bottom  and 
top,  as  a  short  piece  of  lighted  candle  let  down  to  the  bot- 
tom of  a  tight  glass  jar  will  burn  only  for  a  few  minutes. 
The  burning  wick  must  be  supplied  with  fresh  air.  A  com- 
mon barn-lamp,  set  in  the  centre  of  a  large  milk-pan  con- 
taining a  quart  or  more  of  water,  sweetened  thoroughly 
with  cheap  molasses,  will  often  constitute  a  trap  that  will 
attract  and  decoy  into  the  sweet  liquid  a  large  number  of 
millers,  which  would  scatter  an  untold  number  of  eggs,  ev- 
ery one  of  which  would  produce  a  worm  or  caterpillar  that 
would  destroy  more  or  less  fruit.  It  has  been  frequently 
recommended  to  kindle  small  fires  in  different  parts  of  an 
orchard  with  shavings  or  straw.  In  many  instances,  mil- 
lers will  fly  directly  into  the  burning  fire,  and  be  destroyed 
at  once  by  the  flames.     (See  page  268.) 

Some  writers  have  recommended  oil  instead  of  sweetened 
water.  Others  have  suggested  that  the  bell-glass  or  globe 
of  the  burning  lamp  be  smeared  with  oil  or  molasses,  so 
that  the  nocturnal  invaders  may  stick  fast  in  the  glutinous 
material  when  they  fly  near  the  light.  Downing  alludes 
to  an  experiment  of  the  kind  in  France,  during  which  it 
was  stated  that  30,000,000  millers  were  destroyed  in  one 
vineyard.  As  this  is  a  large  number,  we  must  make  prop- 
er allowance  for  the  great  distance  this  story  has  travelled. 
Doubtless,  during  such  a  long  and  perilous  journey,  as 
many  as  two  right-hand  ciphers  have  been  accumulated. 
Nevertheless,  we  can  recommend  this  mode  of  destroying 
millers  in  orchards  and  vineyards ;  and  melon-bugs  may  be 
exterminated,  not  in  myriads,  as  Downing  affirms,  but  in 


232  THE  APPLE  GTJLTUBJHT. 

large  numbers.  When  millers  fly  into  our  dwelling,  and 
flutter  about  the  lamp  in  the  evening,  by  destroying  them 
a  large  number  of  caterpillars  or  other  noxious  depredators 
may  be  exterminated. 

Bottle-traps  for  Insects. — One  of  the  most  convenient  and 
eflicient  ways  to  trap  many  kinds  of  insects,  bugs,  beetles, 
and  millers,  is  to  procure  a  large  number  of  small  bottles, 
and  fill  each  about  half  full  of  switchel,  adding  a  few  spoon- 
fuls of  cider-vinegar  to  a  quart.  Then  make  little  shelves, 
and  nail  them  to  the  side  and  limbs  of  the  trees,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  51,  page  117,  for  receiving  the  bottles.  The  insects 
will  find  this  aromatic  beverage,  and  will  collect  in  large 
numbers  within  the  bottles,  so  that  the  contents  will  have 
to  be  changed  sometimes  every  day.  Some  writers  have 
recommended  to  suspend  such  bottles  by  a  cord.  But  it 
will  be  found  a  much  more  satisfactory  way  to  place  the 
bottles  on  small  shelves,  as  many  insects  will  not  climb 
down  a  cord  to  a  swaying  bottle.  We  feel  confident  that  a 
person  will  never  suspend  his  bottles  more  than  once  if  he 
can  procure  such  little  shelves  as  we  have  recommended. 

The  Canker-worm  {Anisopteryx  vernatd). — This  pest  of 
our  fruit-orchards  is  distinguished  from  most  other  cater- 
pillars that  attack  the  apple,  by  having  but  four  prolegs  at 
the  end  of  the  body.  The  normal  number  of  such  prolegs 
in  caterpillars  is  ten ;  and  it  is  the  lack  of  the  foremost  six 
which  obliges  this  insect  to  span  or  loop,  from  which  habit 
the  characteristic  name  Geometridoe  has  been  given  to  the 
family  to  which  it  belongs.  The  Canker-worm  is  by  no 
means  confined,  in  its  destructive  work,  to  the  apple ;  for  it 
likewise  attacks  the  plum,  the  cherry,  the  elm,  and  a  variety 
of  other  trees.  The  full-grown  worms  vary  greatly  in  the 
depth  of  shading  and  in  the  ground-color — different  shades 
of  ash-gray,  green,  and  yellow,  almost  always  occurring  in 
different  individuals  of  the  same  brood.    This  same  varia- 


EXTEEMINATINO  NOXIOUS  INSECTS.  233 

tion  in  color  is  common  to  most  other  span-worms.  Pro- 
fessor Riley  once  stated  that  the  word  canker-worm  has 
formed  the  heading  of  so  many  articles  in  Agricultural  and 
Horticultural  journals,  during  the  last  ten  or  twelve  years, 
and  its  natural  history  has  been  so  fully  given  in  the  stand- 
ard work  of  Dr.  Harris,  that  one  almost  wonders  where 
there  can  be  a  reading  farmer  who  does  not  know  how 
properly  to  fight  it.  But  we  must  remember  that  new 
generations  are  ever  replacing  those  which  pass  away,  so 
that  the  same  stories  will  doubtless  have  to  be  repeated  to 
the  end  of  time.  Facts  in  Nature  will  always  bear  repeat- 
ing. Hence,  as  it  may  be  laid  down  as  a  maxim  that  no 
injurious  insect  can  be  successfully  combated  without  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  its  habits  and  transformations,  we 
will  first  recount  those  of  the  Canker-worm,  and  afterwards 
state  the  proper  mode  of  extermination. 

The  figures  herewith  given  represent  a  full-grown  Can- 
ker-worm, and  the  same  pest  in  its  different  stages.     The 


Pig.  86.  Fig.  87.  Fig.  88. 


Larvae  of  the  Canker-       Miller  of  the  Canker-  Female  moth  of  the 

worm.  worm.  Canker-worm. 

eggs  of  this  insect  are  very  minute,  short,  and  cylindrical, 
and  are  deposited  close  together  in  rows,  forming  batches. 
They  are  glued  together  by  a  grayish  varnish  which  the 
mother  moth  secretes,  and  they  are  attached  to  the  trunk, 
or  to  some  one  or  other  of  the  twigs  of  the  tree,  each  batch 
consisting  of  upwards  of  a  hundred  eggs.  As  the  leaves 
begin  to  form,  these  eggs  hatch  into  minute,  thread-like 
span-worms ;  and  in  from  three  to  four  weeks  afterwards 


234  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

they  acquire  their  full  size,  when  they  appear  like  Fig.  86. 
After  the  Canker-worm  has  attained  its  full  size,  it  either 
crawls  down  the  tree  or  lets  itself  down  by  means  of  a  silk- 
en thread,  and  burrows  in  the  ground,  where,  at  a  depth  of 
two  or  three  inches,  it  forms  a  rude  cocoon  of  particles  of 
earth  intermixed  with  hair.  Within  two  days  after  com- 
pleting the  cocoon,  the  worm  becomes  a  chrysalis  of  a  light- 
brown  color.  The  sexes  are  now  distinguishable,  the  male 
miller,  shown  at  Fig.  87,  being  slender;  while  that  of  the 
female  is  much  larger,  and  destitute  of  wing-sheaths  (Fig. 
88).  In  the  New  England  States,  the  worms  descend  into 
the  ground  during  the  last  of  June,  where  most  of  them 
remain  till  early  the  following  spring,  though  many  of  them 
change  to  moths  and  issue  during  the  mild  days  of  early 
winter. 

Manner  of  Extermination. — The  sole  object  of  the  female 
moth  of  the  Canker-worm,  after  she  leaves  the  earth,  seems 
to  be  to  provide  for  the  continuance  of  her  kind ;  and  she 
instinctively  places  the  precious  burden,  which  is  to  give 
birth  to  the  young  which  she  herself  is  destined  never  to 
behold,  upon  the  tree  whose  leaves  are  to  nourish  those 
young.  All  her  life-energy  is  centred  in  the  accomplish- 
ment of  this  one  object;  and  she  immediately  makes  for 
the  tree  upon  issuing  from  the  ground.  Consequently, 
any  thing  that  will  prevent  her  ascending  the  trunk  will,  in 
a  great  measure,  preserve  the  tree  from  the  ravages  of  the 
worm.  Numerous,  indeed,  have  been  the  devices  to  accom- 
plish this  desired  object.  Tar,  applied  to  strips  of  old  can- 
vas, sheep-skin,  or  stiff  paper ;  refuse  sorghum-molasses,  or 
printers'  ink,  applied  in  a  similar  manner ;  tin,  lead,  and  rub- 
ber troughs  to  contain  oil,  tin-plate  collars  sloping  down- 
ward, belts  of  cotton-wool,  etc.,  have  all  been  used  with 
satisfactory  results,  in  most  instances,  according  as  they 
have  been  used  intelligently  or  otherwise.     All  these  ap- 


.       EXTERMINATING  NOXIOUS  INSECTS.  235 

pliances,  of  whatsoever  character,  are  divisible  into  two 
classes;  first,  those  which  prevent  the  ascension  of  the 
moth  by  entangling  her  feet  and  trapping  her  fast,  or  by- 
drowning  her ;  and,  second,  those  which  accomplish  the 
same  end  by  preventing  her  getting  a  foothold,  and  thus 
causing  her  repeatedly  to  fall  to  the  ground,  until  she  be- 
comes exhausted  and  dies.  The  most  economical,  efficient, 
and  least  troublesome  manner  of  exterminating  this  pest  is 
to  provide  numerous  bottles  of  sweetened  water,  as  repre- 
sented by  Fig.  51,  p.  11 Y.  If  two  or  three  such  bottles  be 
placed  near  the  foot  of  each  tree,  almost  every  miller  will 
be  trapped.  The  orchardist  must  know  that  many  of  the 
moths  issue  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  and  that  the  applica- 
tions must  be  made  at  least  as  early  as  the  former  part  of 
October ;  and  that  the  tarred  bandages  must  be  kept  sticky, 
through  all  mild  weather,  till  the  leaves  have  appeared  in 
the  following  spring.  Furthermore,  he  must  know  that 
many  of  the  moths — ^frustrated  in  their  efforts  to  climb  the 
tree — will  deposit  their  eggs  near  the  ground,  or  anywhere 
below  the  tar ;  and  that  the  young  worms  hatching  from 
them  are  able  to  pass  through  a  small  crevice,  or  over  a 
fine  straw.  Thus,  if  troughs  are  used,  they  must  be  fitted 
over  a  bandage  of  cotton-wool,  so  that  when  the  trough  is 
drawn  tightly  around  the  tree  it  will  do  no  injury,  and 
will,  at  the  same  time,  cause  the  cotton  to  fill  up  all  inequal- 
ities of  the  bark.  The  joint  must  likewise  be  kept  smeared 
either  with  tar  or  molasses,  and  then  the  worms  will  not  be 
able  to  pass.  In  the  neglect  to  thus  fasten  them  lies  the 
secret  of  failure  which  many  report  who  use  such  troughs. 
Young  worms  can  march  over  the  smoothest  glass  by  the 
aid  of  the  glutinous  silken  thread  which  they  are  able  to 
spin  from  the  very  moment  they  are  born. 

It  will  require  much  persevering  effort,  time,  labor,  and 
expense  to  continually  renew  the  applications  of  tar  on  ev- 


236  THE  APPLE  GULTVRIST. 

ery  tree  in  a  large  orchard  during  so  many  months  of  the 
year.  But  bottles  of  sweetened  water  may  be  quickly  re- 
newed after  the  contents  have  been  cast  out.  The  old 
adage,  "  What  is  worth  doing  at  all,  is  worth  doing  well," 
was  never  truer  than  in  fighting  this  insect.  Apply  the 
remedy  thoroughly  during  two  successive  years,  and  you 
will  have  utterly  routed  the  enemy ;  and  this  is  more  espe- 
cially the  case  where  an  orchard  is  not  in  too  close  proxim- 
ity to  a  forest  or  to  slovenly  neighbors.  Fail  to  apply  the 
remedy,  and  the  enemy  will,  in  all  probability,  rout  you. 
The  reason  is  simple.  The  female  being  wingless,  the  insect 
is  very  local  in  its  attacks,  sometimes  swarming  in  one  or- 
chard, and  being  unknown  in  another  which  is  but  a  mile 
away.  Thus,  after  it  is  once  exterminated,  a  sudden  inva- 
sion is  not  to  be  expected,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Tent-cater- 
pillar, and  of  many  other  orchard  pests ;  but  when  the  Can- 
ker-worrd  has  once  obtained  a  footing  in  an  orchard,  it  mul- 
tiplies the  more  rapidly,  for  the  very  reason  that  it  does  not 
spread  fast.  As  it  is  always  easier  to  prevent  than  to  cure, 
it  were  well  for  the  owners  of  young  orchards,  in  neighbor- 
hoods where  the  Canker-worm  is  known  to  exist,  to  keep  a 
sharp  look-out  for  it,  so  that  upon  its  first  appearance  the 
evil  may  be  nipped  in  the  bud.  In  the  same  manner  that  it 
is  exterminated  in  the  individual  orchard,  it  may,  by  concert 
of  action,  be  exterminated  from  any  given  locality.  When 
once  the  worms  are  on  a  tree,  a  good  jarring  will  suspend 
them  all  in  mid-air,  when  the  best  way  to  kill  them  is  by 
swinging  a  stick  above  them,  which  breaks  the  web,  and 
causes  them  to  fall  to  the  ground,  when  they  may  be  pre 
vented  from  ascending  the  tree  by  the  tin  flange  around  the 
tree  (Fig.  51,  p.  IIV).  Birds  will  destroy  a  large  number  of 
these  pests,  when  they  are  young  and  tender,  in  the  larva 
state.  There  will  be  no  difficulty  in  exterminating  the  Can- 
ker-worm from  every  orchard,  if  proper  efforts  are  employ- 


EXTEMMINATINO  NOXIOUS  INSECTS. 


231 


ed  at  the  right  season  of  the 
year.  The  full-grown  larvae 
must  be  crushed  by  hand  or 
with  the  insect-crushers  (Fig. 
89),  which  may  be  made  of 
wood,  or  be  purchased  at  hard- 
ware stores. 

.The  Curculio  {Bhynchmnus 
nenuphar),  "  Little  Turk." — 
The  great  mass  of  mankind  are 
comparatively  ignorant  with  re- 
gard to  the  real  character  and 
habits  of  this  depredator.  We 
pretend  to  know  but  little  about 
it.    And  yet  many  who  assume 

to  be  familiar  with  what  is  called  insect-crushers,  or  pmcers. 

the  "  CurcuHo,"  do  not  know  any  more  about  it  than  the 
writer.  We  have  the  Apple  Curculio  and  the  Plum  Curcu- 
lio, and  several  other  kinds  of  beetles  called  "  the  Curculio." 
But  we  have  searched  in  vain  through  all  our  horticultural 
and  pomological  journals  to  find  a  description  or  an  allu- 
sion to  the  curculio,  in  which  the  difference  between  the 
two  is  pointed  out.  So  much  has  been  written  ''on  the 
habits  of  this  one  little  insect,  and  on  the  best  means  of 
protecting  our  fruits  from  its  injurious  work,  that  one  al- 
most tires  of  repeating  those  established  facts  in  its  history 
which  all  who  are  interested  should  know.  There  are  yet 
some  mooted  points  to  be  settled  in  the  natural  history  of 
our  curculio.  There  are  actually  many  fruit-growers  who 
do  not  know  a  curculio  when  they  see  one.  The  curculio 
is  such  a  formidable  enemy  to  our  choice  fruit,  that  every 
country  boy  ought  to  be  taught  to  understand  the  char- 
acter of  this  depredator,  so  that  he  may  not  be  in  doubt 
when  he  meets  with  one,  any  more  than  when  he  sees  a 


238 


THE  APPLE  CULTUBIST. 


Fig.  90. 


The  Plum  Curculio. 


tent-caterpillar,  as  to  the  name  by  which  the  foe  may  be 
called. 

"We  herewith  give  life-like  illustrations,  from  the  "  Amer- 
ican Entomologist,"  of  both  the  Plum  Curculio  and  the 
Apple  Curculio.     Figure  90  is  a  magnified  representation 

of  the  Plum  Curculio  in  its 
various  stages.  The  mag- 
nified grub  at  a  represents 
the  curculio  in  the  larva 
state.  The  horizontal  line 
beneath  it  represents  the 
natural  length  when  it  is 
found  in  the  fruit.  At  h 
the  insect  is  represented  in 
the  pupa  state.  The  ver- 
tical line  on  the  left  side  of 
it  shows  the  natural  length. 

a,  magnified  larvae ;  6,  the  chrysalis ;  c,  a  —,,  .  ,  7 .      . 

magnified  beetle  ;d,  a  fall-sized  insect  on   IniS   pupa,  OV    ChrysallS,  IB 

greatly  magnified.  Its  col- 
or is  that  of  a  whitish  grub.  At  c  the  perfect  insect 
is  represented  as  magnified  several  times.  The  mark  be- 
neath the  illustration  represents  the  usual  length  of  a  full- 
grown  'insect.  The  color  of  this  "  little  Turk "  is  some- 
times brown,  black,  or  of  a  clay-yellow.  At  6?  a  curculio  of 
full  size  is  shown  on  the  surface  of  a  small  plum,  in  one  side 
of  which  the  crescent  mark  of  the  curculio's  proboscis  ap- 
pears, such  as  is  made  on  the  young  fruit  when  an  egg  is 
deposited  beneath  the  skin.  Fig.  91,  On  the  opposite  page, 
represents  the  Apple  Curculio,  which,  to  appearance,  is  a 
very  different  insect  from  the  Plum  Curculio.  At  a  is  a 
diagram  of  the  depredator  of  natural  size.  At  ^  is  a  mag- 
nified side-view.  At  c  we  have  a  back  view  of  the  same 
insect.  The  usual  color  of  this  insect  is  a  dingy  gray,  in- 
clining to  red  rust  behind.     The  Apple  Curculio  spreads 


EXTEBMINATING  NOXIOUS  INSECTS. 


239 


7  o 

The  Apple  Curculio. 


with  extraordinary  rapidi-  Fig.  9i. 

ty,  and  destroys  the  great- 
er part  of  the  apple  crop  in 
many  localities.  The  Ap- 
ple Curculio  makes  a  round 
cut  difficult  to  see  with  the 
eye.  The  worm  remains 
where  the  egg  was  laid 
until  it  matures,  when  it 
comes  out  and  goes  into  the 
ground.  The  curculio  can 
not  fly  under  a  temperature  of  Vt)  degrees.  They  fly  against 
the  wind ;  but  as  yet  no  one  has  been  able  to  determine  the 
extent  to  which  they  migrate.  The  Apple  or  Four-humped 
Curculio  {Anthonomus  quadrigihbus)  is  a  much  smaller  in- 
sect, with  a  snout  which  sticks  out  more  or  less  horizontal- 
ly and  can  not  be  folded  under,  and  which  is  as  long  as  the 
whole  body.  This  insect  has  narrow  shoulders  and  is  broad- 
er behind,  where  it  is  furnished  with  four  very  conspicuous 
humps,  from  which  it  takes  its  name.  It  has  neither  the 
polished  black  elevations  nor  the  pale  band  of  the  Plum 
Curculio.  In  short,  it  differs  generically,  and  does  not  at- 
tack the  peach.  What  we  have  to  record  in  this  connec- 
tion respecting  the  curculio  will  be  chiefly  of  a  practical 
character. 

The  Plum  Curculio,  commonly  known  all  over  the  coun- 
try as  "the  curculio,"  is  a  small,  roughened,  warty,  brown- 
ish beetle,  belonging  to  a  very  extensive  family  known  as 
Snout-beetles  (Ourculionidce).  It  measures  about  one-fifth 
of  an  inch  in  length,  exclusive  of  the  snout,  and  may  be 
distinguished  from  all  other  North  American  Snout -bee- 
tles by  having  an  elongate,  knife-edged  hump,  resembling 
a  piece  of  black  sealing-wax,  on  the  middle  of  each  wing- 
case,  behind  which  humps  there  is   a  broad  clay -yellow^ 


240  THE  APPLE  GULTURIST. 

band,  with  more  or  less  white  in  its  middle.  The  snout 
of  the  Plum  Curculio  is  scarcely  as  long  as  the  head  and 
thorax  together,  and  can  be  folded  back  between  the  legs, 
where  there  is  a  groove  to  receive  it.  The  Plum  Curculio 
is  broadest  across  the  shoulders  and  narrows  behind ;  and, 
moreover,  the  black  sealing-wax-like,  knife-edged  elevations 
on  the  back,  with  the  pale  band  behind  them,  characterize 
it  at  once  from  all  our  other  fruit-boring  snout-beetles.  It 
is  in  this  hard,  shelly,  beetle  state,  that  the  female  passes 
the  winter,  sheltering  under  the  shingles  of  houses,  under 
the  old  bark  of  both  forest  and  fruit  trees,  under  logs,  and 
in  rubbish  of  all  kinds.  As  spring  approaches,  the  insect 
awakens  from  its  lethargy ;  and,  if  it  has  slept  in  the  forest, 
it  instinctively  searches  for  the  nearest  orchard.  In  Cen- 
tral Illinois  and  in  Central  Missouri  the  beetles  may  be 
found  in  the  trees  during  the  last  half  of  April ;  but  in  the 
extreme  southern  part  of  Illinois  they  appear  about  two 
weeks,  earlier;  while  in  the  extreme  northern  part  of  the 
same  State  they  are  fully  two  weeks  later.  Thus,  in  the 
single  State  of  Illinois,  there  is  a  difference  of  about  one 
month  in  the  time  of  the  curculio's  first  appearance  on 
fruit-trees ;  and  the  time  will  vary  with  the  forwardness  or 
lateness  of  the  season. 

How  they  Oviposit. — The  curculio  first  commences  to 
puncture  fruit  when  the  specimens  are  of  the  size  of  small 
marbles,  or  of  hazel-nuts,  though  she  may  be  found  on  your 
trees  as  soon  as  they  are  in  blossom.  Alighting  on  a  small 
peach,  she  takes  a  strong  hold  of  it,  and  with  the  minute 
jaws  at  the  end  of  her  snout  makes  a  small  cut  just 
through  the  skin  of  the  fruit.  She  then  runs  the  snout 
slantingly  under  the  skin,  to  the  depth  of  one-sixteenth  of 
an  inch,  and  moves  it  back  and  forth  until  the  cavity  is 
large  enough  to  receive  the  egg  it  is  to  retain.  Then  she 
turns  around  and  drops  an  Qgg  into  the  mouth  of  the  cavi- 


EXTERMINATING  NOXIOUS  INSECTS.  241 

ty.  After  this  is  accomplished,  she  resumes  her  first  posi 
tion,  and  by  means  of  her  snout  pushes  the  egg  to  the  end 
of  the  passage ;  and  afterwards  deliberately  cuts  the  cres- 
cent in  front  of  the  hole,  so  as  to  undermine  the  egg  and 
leave  it  in  a  sort  of  flap.  The  whole  operation  requires 
about  five  minutes;  and  her  object  in  cutting  the  crescent 
is  evidently  to  deaden  the  flap,  so  as  to  prevent  the  grow- 
ing fruit  from  crushing  the  egg.  Now  that  she  has  com- 
pleted this  task,  and  has  gone  off  to  perform  a  similar  op- 
eration on  some  other  fruit,  let  us  from  day  to  day  watch 
the  egg  which  we  have  just  seen  deposited,  and  learn  in 
what  manner  it  develops  into  a  curculio  like  the  parent 
which  produced  it,  remembering  that  the  life  and  habits  of 
this  one  individual  are  illustrative  of  those  of  every  Plum 
Curculio  that  ever  had,  or  that  ever  will  have,  an  existence. 
We  shall  find  that  the  egg  is  oval  and  of  a  pearly-white 
color.  Should  the  weather  be  warm  and  genial,  this  egg 
will  hatch  in  from  four  to  five  days ;  but,  if  cold  and  un- 
pleasant, the  hatching  will  not  take  place  for  a  week,  or 
even  longer.  Eventually,  however,  there  hatches  from  the 
egg  a  soft,  tiny,  footless  grub,  with  a  horny  head ;  and  this 
grub  immediately  commences  to  feed  upon  the  green  flesh 
of  the  fruit,  boring  a  tortuous  path  as  it  proceeds.  It  riots 
in  the  fruit,  working  by  preference  around  the  stone,  for 
from  three  to  five  weeks,  the  period  varying  according  to 
various  controlling  influences.  The  fruit  containing  this 
grub  does  not,  in  the  majority  of  instances,  mature,  but 
falls  prematurely  to  the  ground,  generally,  before  the  grub 
is  quite  full-grown.  We  have  known  fruit  to  lie  on  the 
ground  for  upward  of  two  weeks  before  the  grub  left, 
and  have  found  as  many  as  five  grubs  in  a  single  peach 
which  had  been  on  the  ground  for  several  days.  And 
yet  it  is  an  unusual  occurrence  to  find  more  than  one  or 
two  grubs  in  a  plum.     Some  entomologists  have  stated 

11 


242  THE  APPLE  CULTUEIST. 

that  curculios  rarely  deposit  more  than  one  egg  in  a  plum 
or  apple. 

"When  the  grub  has  become  full-grown,  however,  it  for- 
sakes the  fruit  which  it  has  ruined,  and  burrows  from  four 
to  six  inches  in  the  ground.  At  this  time  it  is  of  a  glassy, 
yellowish-white  color,  though  it  usually  partakes  of  the  col- 
or of  the  fruit-flesh  on  which  it  was  feeding.  It  is  about 
two-fifths  of  an  inch  long,  with  the  head  light-brown.  In 
the  ground,  by  turning  round  and  round,  it  compresses  the 
earth  on  all  sides  until  it  has  formed  a  smooth  and  oval 
cavity.  Within  this  cavity,  in  the  course  of  a  few  days,  it 
assumes  the  pupa  form,  as  represented  at  &,  Fig.  90,  p.  238. 
After  remaining  in  the  ground  in  this  state  for  about  three 
weeks,  it  becomes  a  beetle,  which,  though  soft  and  uniform- 
ly reddish  at  first,  soon  assumes  its  natural  colors ;  and, 
when  its  several  parts  are  sufiiciently  hardened,  works 
through  the  soil  to  the  light  of  day. 

"Playing  Possum."  —  The  curculio,  when  alarmed,  like 
many  other  insects,  and  especially  such  as  belong  to  the 
same  great  order  of  beetles  {Coleoptera),  folds  up  its  legs 
close  to  the  body,,  turns  its  snout  under  into  a  groove  which 
receives  it,  and  drops  to  the  ground.  In  doing  this,  it 
feigns  death,  so  as  to  escape  from  threatened  danger,  and 
does  in  reality  greatly  resemble  a  dried  fruit-bud.  It  at- 
tacks, either  for  purposes  of  propagation  or  for  food,  the 
nectarine,  plum,  apricot,  peach,  cherry,  apple,  pear,  and 
quince,  preferring  them  in  the  order  of  their  naming.  It  is 
always  most  numerous,  in  the  early  part  of  the  season,  on 
the  outside  of  those  orchards  that  are  surrounded  with  tim- 
ber. It  is  also  more  numerous  in  timbered  regions  than 
on  the  prairie.  We  believe  all  entomologists  agree,  touch- 
ing the  foregoing  habits  and  natural  history  of  both  the 
Plum  Curculio  and  the  Apple  Curculio.  As  already  stated, 
when  this  insect  is  alarmed,  it  gathers  up  its  legs,  drops 


EXTERMINATING  NOXIOUS  INSECTS.  243 

to  the  ground,  and  feigns  death.  This  peculiarity  gives  us 
the  only  effectual  method  of  destroying  it,  which  is  to  jar 
the  trees  every  morning,  and  catch  the  insects  upon  a  sheet 
and  destroy  them.  All  fallen  fruit  must  be  gathered  and 
destroyed ;  or  hogs  should  be  turned  into  the  orchard  and 
allowed  to  consume  every  fallen  apple  or  other  fruit,  while 
the  larvae  are  still  in  the  fruit.  The  warmth  that  brings 
out  blossoms  brings  the  curculios  to  their  natural  food  and 
breeding-places.  They  hide  anywhere  in  the  orchard  where 
there  is  a  cover.  During  the  warm  days  and  nights  of 
April  and  May  they  go  up  the  tree — mostly  crawling,  it  is 
presumed — to  feed  and  to  pair. 

How  to  Trap  the  Curculio. — Ko  possible  way  has  as  yet 
been  discovered  to  prevent  the  ravages  of  the  curculio,  ex- 
cept the  summary  way  of  dealing  with  most  other  insects, 
worms,  and  caterpillars — "  to  catch  'em  and  kill  'em."  Some 
pomologists  have  reported  excellent  success  in  their  efforts 
to  trap  the  Little  Turk  in  the  following  manner.  On  the 
contrary,  others  have  attempted  the  same  thing,  and  re- 
ported no  satisfactory  results.  Early  in  the  spring,  let  the 
surface  of  the  ground  round  about  every  tree  be  rendered 
as  smooth  as  practicable  by  removing  every  sod  and  stone, 
and  crushing  every  clod.  Make  the  ground  very  smooth 
around  the  base  of  the  tree.  Do  not  leave  a  single  hole 
next  the  tree.  Leave  no  place  where  the  curculio  can  hide, 
except  under  the  shelter  you  provide.  Now  lay  near  to  the 
tree,  and  close  to  the  ground,  about  four  pieces  to  a  tree, 
either  chip,  or  bark,  board,  lath,  rag,  corn-cob,  old  leather, 
or  any  thing  for  a  covert.  The  curculio  will  conceal  itself 
under  this  shelter,  and  may  be  destroyed  by  the  thousand. 
Go  around  every  day  and  turn  over  each  chip,  killing  every 
curculio.  They  will  generally  adhere  to  the  chip,  but  may 
often  be  found  on  the  ground  under  the  chip.  The  first 
warm  day  in  spring  that  starts  vegetable  life  calls  the  cur- 


244  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

culio  forth,  when  it  proceeds  to  its  feeding  and  breeding 
ground.  They  walk  fast,  and  they  fly  and  feed  generally  at 
night,  eating  the  young  and  tender  leaves.  Except  in  cold 
and  stormy  nights,  the  curculio,  in  most  instances,  remains 
on  the  trees  to  feed,  and  some  pomologists  will  insist  that 
they  usually  come  down  towards  morning  to  hide.  They 
crawl,  on  cold  days  and  nights,  and  hide  under  the  shelter 
of  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  waiting  to  feed  when  the  nights 
become  sufficiently  warm.  The  curculio  uses  the  green 
fruit  only  to  hold  its  egg  and  young.  When  the  weather 
is  warm  and  pleasant,  almost  every  insect  remains  in  'the 
tree-top.  We  have  seen  reports  in  which  the  writers  stated 
that  they  had  trapped  thousands  of  them  every  day  beneath 
their  peach-trees,  plum-trees,  and  other  fruit-trees.  The 
curculio  may  often  be  found  on  the  under  side  of  the  most 
lateral  branches,  where  there  is  knot,  black  moss,  bud,  twig, 
rough  bark,  or  any  thing  that  will  give  a  partial  hiding- 
place.  It  is  important  to  be  ready  for  them  when  they  first 
appear  out  of  the  ground  in  the  spring,  as  they  take  refuge 
under  old  matted  leaves,  sod,  lumps  of  dirt,  sticks,  any  thing 
on  and  around  the  trees,  especially  old  rough  bark,  wher- 
ever there  is  a  sufficient  covert.  They  move  but  little  at 
first,  unless  it  is  warm.  A  Western  pomologist,  W.  B.  Ran- 
som, wrote  that  he  killed  nearly  eighteen  thousand  in  a  few 
days ;  and  a  neighbor  destroyed  twenty  thousand  in  his  or- 
chards by  simply  smoothing  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and 
placing  a  few  chips  on  the  ground  near  the  bodies  of  the 
trees.  Old  pieces  of  woollen  cloth  laid  in  the  fork  of  the 
limbs  will  furnish  an  excellent  refuge  for  them  during  cold 
and  windy  days  and  nights. 

Jarring  the  Trees  to  catch  the  Curculio. — ^Up  to  this  time 
of  writing,  it  is  generally  admitted  that  there  is  no  mode 
of  destroying  the  Little  Turk  that  can  be  relied  on  as  thor- 
oughly efficient,  except  the  practice  of  jarring  the  trees 


EXTERMINATING  NOXIOUS  INSECTS.  245 

and  catching  the  curculios  as  they  fall  on  sheets  spread  be- 
neath the  trees.  The  trees  are  jarred  by  means  of  a  sharp 
blow  or  two  in  quick  succession,  which  induces  every  in- 
sect to  relinquish  his  hold  on  the  fruit  or  branch,  when  they 
all  fall  to  the  ground.  Shaking  a  tree  has  very  little  effica- 
cy to  make  them  quit  their  hold. 

The  most  convenient  apparatus,  in  the  line  of  sheets,  con- 
sists of  two  pieces  of  strong  factory,  about  seven  feet  wide 
by  fourteen  feet  long,  each  one  having  a  half-circle  cut  out 
of  one  side  near  the  middle,  to  fit  around  the  body  of  the 
tree.  The  sheets  may  be  made  of  good  bed-ticking  or  of 
old  sail-cloth.  As  they  are  spread  out  beneath  a  tree,  the 
operator  steps  on  the  sheets  close  to  the  tree,  and  with  a 
hammer  applies  one  or  two  sharp  blows  against  a  spike  or 
large  nail  driven  into  the  body  of  the  tree,  up  from  the 
ground  as  high  as  a  man's  head.  Some  have  recommended 
to  saw  off  a  limb  and  strike  against  the  end  of  the  stub ; 
but  a  spur  of  iron  is  preferable.  Bore  a  half-inch  hole  one 
and  a  half  inches  into  the  side  of  the  tree,  and  drive  in  an 
iron  pin,  say  three  or  four  inches  long.  The  iron  will  not 
injure  the  tree,  and  the  pin  will  last  for  many  years — ^imtil 
the  projecting  part  is  grown  over.  If  the  body  of  the  tree 
is  struck  with  a  beetle,  axe-head,  or  a  battering-ram,  a  seri- 
ous bruise  will  be  made ;  and  more  than  this,  a  dull  blow 
from  a  muffled  mallet  will  not  jar  a  tree  sufficiently  to 
make  the  curculios  relinquish  their  hold.  A  sharp,  jarring 
blow  is  essential.  A  blow  or  two  with  a  hammer  or  an  axe- 
head  on  an  iron  pin  will  bring  down  every  curculio  that 
may  be  on  the  tree,  without  injury  to  the  bark  of  the  tree. 
If  trees  are  only  five  or  six  years  old,  a  large  nail,  driven 
half  way  in,  will  subserve  an  excellent  purpose.  When  two 
blows  are  given,  they  should  follow  each  other  in  quick  suc- 
cession, as  one  blow  may  not  always  induce  every  curculio 
to  quit  his  hold.     But  another  blow,  given  as  quickly  as  a 


246  THE  APPLE  CVLTURIST. 

person  can  strike  with  a  hammer,  would  have  the  effect  to 
bring  down  many  more  insects  than  a  single  blow.  When 
fruit-trees  are  of  numerous  sizes — some  small  and  others 
large — much  judgment  must  be  exercised  in  gauging  the 
force  of  the  blows.  A  light  blow  with  a  nail-hammer  of 
ordinary  size  will  be  sufficient  for  many  trees  six  to  eight 
years  old.  A  person  of  acute  perception  will  soon  be  able 
to  learn  whether  the  blows  given  are  too  heavy  or  too  light. 
In  some  instances,  where  trees  are  larger,  it  will  be  advisa- 
ble to  insert  an  iron  pin,  say  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  di- 
ameter, into  each  large  limb.  The  end  of  all  such  iron  pins 
that  enters  the  wood  should  be  square,  so  that  oft-repeated 
blows  may  not  drive  them  deeper. 

When  sheets  are  spread  on  the  smooth  ground,  every 
insect  that  drops  can  be  seen  readily;  and  if  the  number 
were  large,  the  ends  of  the  sheets  can  be  gathered  up  quick- 
ly, and  all  the  "  Turks  "  be  crushed  in  a  moment.  One  per- 
son can  manage  such  an  apparatus  as  this  with  facility; 
and  it  will  be  found  much  more  convenient,  all  things  con- 
sidered, than  if  the  sheets  were  stretched  across  frames. 

Catcher  on  Wheels. — Several  Western  pomologists  have 
recommended  the  use  of  a  large  umbrella-like  sheet,  sup- 
ported by  a  frame-work  similar  to  the  frame  of  a  parasol, 
all  of  which  is  to  be  mounted  on  a  kind  of  wheelbarrow 
(Fig.  92,  on  the  opposite  page),  with  a  battering-beam  in 
front.  The  vehicle  is  then  run  forcibly  against  the  body 
of  a  tree,  while  the  sheet  is  extended  to  catch  the  depreda- 
tors as  they  fall. 

The  objections  to  such  an  apparatus  are  its  cost,  incon- 
venience in  handling,  and  its  inefficiency  for  giving  a  sharp, 
jarring  blow  to  the  tree.  Besides  this,  when  the  sheet  is 
spread,  if  supported  two  feet  or  more  above  the  ground, 
a  person  can  not  approach  the  tree  to  jar  it  with  a  ham- 
mer.    Every  person  will  find  that  it  will  be  most  conven- 


EXTERMINATING  NOXIOUS  INSECTS.  247 

Fig.  92. 


Curculio-catcher. 


lent  and  economical,  in  every  respect,  to  lay  the  sheets  on 
the  smooth  gro'und.  There  will  be  many  places  where  the 
spread  wheelbarrow-curculio-catcher  can  not  be  used  with- 
out great  inconvenience.     More  than  this,  bunting  the  bod- 


248  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

ies  of  trees,  even  with  a  cushioned  mallet,  or  rammer,  will 
injure  the  bark,  unless  the  cushion  is  very  thick,  in  which 
case  the  jar  will  not  be  sufficient  to  bring  down  the  insects. 

When  to  catch  Curculios. — These  depredators  are  found 
on  fruit-trees  all  through  the  growing  season.  They  seem 
to  be  illustrious  philosophers.  They  will  seldom  deposit  an 
Qgg  in  a  cherry,  plum,  apple,  or  any  other  fruit,  after  the 
specimens  have  grown  to  a  certain  size,  or  have  attained  a 
certain  age.  If  the  q^^  is  not  deposited  within  a  certain 
period  after  the  blossom  has  fallen,  or  after  the  young  fruit 
has  formed,  the  growth  will  maintain  the  ascendency  over 
the  slow  progress  of  the  little  larva  in  the  fruit.  In  other 
words,  the  fruit  will  grow  faster  than  the  larva  can  eat. 
Hence  the  curculio  will  seldom  deposit  its  eggs  in  fruit  that 
is  larger  than  the  eggs  of  a  quail.  The  young  depredators 
lay  their  course  always  directly  for  the  delicate  central  or- 
gans that  run  through  the  core  of  the  apple  or  pear.  Hence, 
if  the  putamen  or  stone  of  the  plum,  cherry,  or  peach,  has 
begun  to  harden,  the  curculio  seems  to  know  it,  and  will 
not  deposit  eggs  in  such  fruit.  The  eggs  must  be  depos- 
ited before  the  putamen  or  shell  of  the  pit  has  begun  to 
harden.  These  suggestions  warrant  the  direction  to  jar  the 
trees  daily  for  curculios  before  the  young  fruit  is  as  large  as 
peas  of  good  size,  until  the  last  depredator  has  been  cap- 
tured, or  until  the  putamen  of  the  grooving  fruit  is  so  hard 
that  the  young  larva  will  not  attempt  to  eat  his  way  to  the 
centre  of  the  fruit.  Let  the  spikes  or  stubs  be  inserted  in  the 
trees  during  the  winter,  when  other  duties  are  not  urgent, 
and  let  the  sheets  be  prepared  long  before  they  will  be  want- 
ed. Then,  by  appropriating  a  little  time  daily  to  the  work 
of  extermination,  the  fruit  can  be  saved  at  a  small  expense. 

United  Efforts  for  Extermination. — As  the  curculio  has 
wings  and  can  fly — no  one  knows  how  far  or  not  how  far — 
near  neighbors  should  make  a  united  effort  to  capture  every 


EXTERMINATING  NOXIOUS  INSECTS.  249 

invader,  and  to  let  not  even  one  larva  escape.  In  some  sec- 
tions of  country  this  has  been  done,  and  the  result  has  been 
excellent  crops  of  fine  fruit.  When  sheep  and  swine  are 
not  permitted  to  devour  all  the  premature  specimens  that 
fall  from  the  trees,  such  fruit  should  be  picked  up  every- 
day and  destroyed,  so  as  to  prevent  the  increase  of  the  cur- 
culio.  By  united  efforts,  this  invader  could  be  effectually 
exterminated  from  the  country  in  a  few  years.  They  who 
would  succeed  in  this  work  of  extermination,  must  perse- 
vere long,  as  new  crops  of  the  insects  often  continue  to 
come  after  the  earlier  ones  are  all  destroyed.  The  best  time 
is  early  in  the  morning,  when  these  insects  are  more  torpid 
than  at  midday.  Once  a  day  will  commonly  answer,  except 
in  seasons  of  extraordinary  abundance,  when  a  second  ex- 
amination should  be  made  at  sundown.  The  work  should 
not  be  intermitted  a  single  day.  It  is  such  intermissions 
that  often  cause  failure.  Many  have  failed  also  by  trying 
to  shake  the  pest  off  the  trees.  Nothing  but  a  sharp  jar 
will  bring  them  down. 

The  Tent-qaterpillar. — This  pest  of  the  apple-orchard  is 
often  alluded  to  as  the  most  formidable  enemy  that  po- 
mologists  have  to  encounter.  But  this  caterpillar  may  be 
exterminated  with  less  trouble  and  labor  than  almost  any 
other  insect  of  the  orchard.  The  only  remedy  is  to  "  catch 
'em  and  kill  'em."  Unlike  some  other  depredators,  this  one 
can  be  combated  by  destroying  the  moths,  the  eggs,  or  the 
larvae,  or  full-grown  worms.  When  numerous,  it  has  been 
known  to  strip  whole  orchards  of  their  leaves,  thus  destroy- 
ing the  fruit-crop  for  the  season,  and  sometimes  proving 
fatal  to  the  trees.  In  many  sections  of  the  country  where 
these  caterpillars  are  not  molested,  we  have  often  seen  large 
orchards  in  the  summer  which  looked  as  if  a  fire  had  been 
sweeping  through  the  tree-tops. 

The  Tent-caterpillar  is  hatched  from  eggs  deposited  by  a 
11* 


250 


THE  APPLE  CULTUEIST. 


Fig.  93.  large  miller,  called  the  Amer- 

ican Lackey-moth,  of  a  yel- 
lowish brown  color,  represent- 
ed by  Fig.  93,  which  is  often 
seen  flying  about  among  fruit- 
trees  during  the  latter  part  of 
summer  or  in  September,  in 
our  latitude.  The  American 
Lackey-moth,  when  fully  de- 
veloped, measures  about  one 

Moth  of  the  American  Tent-caterpillar    inch   and    a   half   from    tip   tO 
—male  and  female.  ^ 

tip  of  the  expanded  wings. 
It  is  usually  of  a  pale  brick  color;  but  individuals  are  oc- 
casionally seen  much  darker,  or  of  an  ashy-brown  color. 
Across  the  fore  wings  are  two  straight,  oblique  whitish 
lines.  The  antennaB  are  moderately  pectinate,  or  feather- 
like, in  the  male,  and  very  slightly  so  in  the  female.  The 
hollow  tongue,  or  sucker,  through  which  insects  of  this  or- 
der imbibe  their  nutriment,  is  wholly  wanting  in  this  spe- 
cies, as,  indeed,  it  is  generally  in  the  particular  group  to 
which  it  belongs.  Their  short  lives  have  but  one  object — 
the  pairing  of  the  sexes  and  the  deposition  of  the  eggs  by 
the  female  for  a  future  generation.  The  following  exper- 
iment illustrates  some  of  their  habits :  Three  female  moths 
were  inclosed  in  a  glass  vessel.  They  were  quiet  during 
the  day,  but  became  very  restless  as  night  approached, 
showing  that,  like  the  moths  in  general,  they  are  nocturnal 
in  their  habits.  On  the  third  day,  a  twig  of  an  apple-tree 
was  introduced  into  the  vessel.  The  moths  immediately 
ran  up  upon  it,  and  put  themselves  in  position  for  laying 
their  eggs.  This  was  accomplished  in  the  following  man- 
ner :  Placing  herself  transversely  upon  the  side  of  the  twig, 
she  curved  her  abdomen  under  the  twig,  and  extended  it 
up  the  opposite  side  as  far  as  she  could  reach,  and  com- 


EXTERMINATING  NOXIOUS  INSECTS.  251 

menced  depositing  her  eggs,  one  after  another,  gradually 
withdrawing  the  abdomen  till  she  had  laid  a  row  of  eggs 
across  the  under  side  of  the  twig.  She  then,  in  the  same 
manner,  deposited  another  row,  parallel  to  and  in  contact 
with  the  first.  Owing  to  their  unnatural  situation,  or  the 
absence  of  the  opposite  sex,  or  to  some  unknown  cause, 
these  moths  in  confinement  succeeded  in  laying  but  two  or 
three  rows  of  eggs ;  while  in  a. state  of  nature  they  lay  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  rows,  containing  in  all  an  average  of  about 
two  hundred  and  fifty  eggs.  They  subsequently  cover  the 
eggs  with  a  coating  of  brown  varnish,  which  effectually  pro- 
tects them  from  the  vicissitudes  of  the  weather.  Let  every 
one  be  caught  and  killed,  and  thus  destroy  a  large  number 
of  caterpillars.  Let  several  bottles  of  sweetened  water  be 
placed  near  every  tree,  as  directed  (Fig.  51,  p.  11 7).  By 
this  means  a  large  number  of  caterpillars  may  be  wiped  out 
before  they  have  had  an  existence. 

This  yellowish-brown  miller,  as  already  stated,  deposits 
her  eggs  around  small  twigs,  as  shown  at  c.  Fig.  95,  p.  253, 
or  by  Fig.  94,  herewith  giv-  Pig.  94. 

en,  all  placed  on  end,  and  cov- 
ered over  with  a  varnish,  to 
shield  them  from  rain  and 
snow.  Each  bunch  can  read- 
ily be  seen ;  and  when  taken 
off  and  burned,  a  whole  nest 
will  be  destroyed  at  once, 
without    resorting    to    soap-   Eggs  of  the  Lackey-moth  wo^Z^pirally 

suds,  coal-oil,  or   any  other  around  a  twig. 

application.  This  can  be  done  at  any  time  during  winter 
or  spring,  before  the  tree  leaves  out.  Should  any  be  over- 
looked, they  are  easily  destroyed  about  the  time  the  buds 
commence  to  put  forth,  as  the  young  caterpillars  hatch 
out  the  first  warm  spell  in  the  spring,  and  can  always  be 


252  THE  APPLE  CULTUEIST. 

found  at  the  first  crotch,  or  fork,  below  the  eggs.  In  no 
case,  however  warm  or  protracted  the  autumn  may  be,  do 
these  eggs  ever  hatch  till  the  following  spring;  so  that 
the  Tent-caterpillar,  unlike  many  of  our  noxious  insects, 
never  has  more  than  one  brood  in  the  season.  At  this  stage 
of  their  existence  they  are  confined  to  a  very  small  com- 
pass, and  can  easily  be  destroyed.  The  best  time  to  do 
this  is  early  in  the  morniug,  or  towards  evening,  as  at 
these  times  they  are  all  collected  together,  and  quick 
work  can  be  made  with  them.  When  out  of  reach,  some 
use  a  pole,  rough  at  the  end.  With  this  one  can  wind  a 
whole  web,  worms  and  all,  and  thus  exterminate  the  cater- 
pillar. 

We  have  frequently  placed  a  knot  of  such  eggs  in  a  warm 
room  during  cold  weather,  where  every  egg  has  produced  a 
minute  caterpillar  not  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long.  As  soon  as 
they  are  hatched,  they  begin  to  feed  upon  the  tender  leaves 
of  the  apple  and  some  other  trees,  and  increase  in  size  and 
capacity  for  destruction  with  the  growth  of  the  foliage,  de- 
stroying it  as  fast  as  it  grows.  In  the  early  morning,  while 
the  dew  is  on  the  foliage,  sprinkle  fine  air-slaked  lime  freely 
over  the  tree.  The  caterpillar  will  drop  almost  as  soon  as 
touched  by  the  subtile  dust,  or  perish  while  holding  to  the 
leaf,  provided  each  one  gets  thoroughly  dusted  with  the 
strong  lime.  But  it  is  better  to  examine  the  outer  twigs 
of  trees  several  times  for  the  nests.  Then,  it  is  better  still 
to  destroy  the  millers.  In  the  spring,  keep  an  eye  on  the 
trees  for  these  depredators;  and  as  soon  as  a  nest  is  dis- 
covered, climb  up  and  crush  every  one.  Do  not  attempt 
to  burn  these  pests,  or  to  blow  the  nests  to  fragments  with 
powder.  Put  on  a  leather  mitten,  and  crush  them  long  be 
fore  they  are  large  enough  to  injure  the  leaves.  Do  not 
permit  a  nest  to  be  built  in  the  orchard.  Retire  one  hour 
earlier  than  usual,  so  as  to  be  able  to  rise  with  the  lark,  and 


EXTEBMINATINQ  NOXIOUS  INSECTS. 


253 


spend  an  hour  crushing  caterpillars  before  the  sleepers  have 
opened  their  eyes.  This  is  the  only  remedy — "  catch  'em  and 
kill  'em."  Large  caterpillars  will  often  crawl  half  a  mile  on 
a  fence.  Let  such  itinerant  interlopers  be  crushed,  as  each 
one  will  change  to  a  brown  miller,  like  Fig.  93,  p.  250,  which 
will  lay  an  untold  number  of  eggs. 

Most  of  our  rural  readers  will  recognize  at  a  glance  the 
perfect  representation,  given  in  the  accompanying  diagram, 
of  a  small  nest  of  Fig.  95. 

these  •  depredators 
of  the  apple  -  or- 
chard, two  of  which 
are  full-grown,  as 
shown  at  a  and  b. 
The  nest  is  built  by 
spinning  numerous 
webs  at  the  fork  of 
two  branches,  from 
one  to  the  other, 
leaving  a  hole  for 
the  entrance  of  the 
caterpillars  on  one 
side,  as  represented 
by  the  dark  spot  on 
the  nest,  between 
the  caterpillars  a 
and  h.  Many  nests, 
when  the.  depreda- 
tors are  not  molest- 
ed, contain  two  to  ^  a  nest  of  Tent-caterpillars. 
four  quarts  of  these  repulsive  invaders  of  the  apple-orchard. 
If  any  of  the  larvae — a  and  h — escape  being  crushed  or  de- 
stroyed in  some  manner,  let  them  be  bunted  in  the  pupa 
state — as   at   d — or  let   their   eggs,  c,  be   destroyed.      It 


254  THE  APPLE  CULTUEIST. 

is  a  singular  fact  that,  before  these  eggs  will  hatch,  there 
must  have  already  been  sufficient  warm  weather  to  expand 
the  buds  and  develop  small  leaves.  The  young  caterpillars 
are  usually  ready  to  devour  the  tender  leaves  as  soon  as  the 
latter  are  of  sufficient  size  for  the  depredators  to  get  a  bite. 
These  larvae  grow  rapidly  when  they  can  reach  a  liberal 
supply  of  young  leaves.  As  soon  as  they  fill  themselves 
they  return  to  the  nest,  and  rest  until  their  food  is  digested 
and  a  quantity  of  webbing  material  has  been  concocted^ 
when  they  spin  and  weave  up  all  their  warp  and  woof,  and 
then  hasten  away  to  feed  again  on  the  leaves.  During  cold 
nights  and  stormy  days  they  collect  in  the  nest,  or  where 
the  nest  is  being  built,  and  resist  the  storm  as  well  as  they 
can.  They  should  never  be  permitted  to  build  such  a  nest 
as  is  here  represented,  as  their  ravages  are  exceedingly  in- 
jurious to  the  growing  tree,  especially  to  its  fruitfulness. 
If  unmolested,  these  caterpillars  will  soon  become  large  and 
fat,  and  most  of  them  will  leave  the  nest  and  enter  the  pupa 
state,  d,  and  some  will  crawl  on  fences  a  long  distance. 

As  soon  as  their  career  in  the  larva  state  is  run,  each  one 
spins  a  covering  around  its  body,  in  some  secluded  place 
where  storms  can  not  beat  upon  it,  as  shown  at  d,  which  is 
a  cocoon  containing  the  chrysalis,  or  parent  insect,  in  the 
pupa  state.  During  the  months  of  July  and  August,  these 
cocoons  may  be  seen  beneath  pieces  of  bark,  on  fences,  at- 
tached to  gate-posts  or  out-buildings.  If  all  such  cocoons 
be  destroyed,  no  larvae  (caterpillars  and  moths)  would  be 
seen  the  next  season.  If  the  cocoons — d,  in  the  illustra- 
tion— are  not  disturbed,  the  parent  insect,  in  the  form  of  a 
large  miller,  as  already  stated,  will  soon  emerge,  and  com- 
mence the  task  of  its  little  life — laying  the  eggs,  c. 

In  some  sections  of  country,  during  the  middle  and  lat- 
ter part  of  summer,  some  orchards  and  vineyards  seem  to 
be  alive  with  moths  and  millers  of  the  kind  alluded  to,  a 


EXTERMINATING  NOXIOUS  INSECTS.  255 

large  proportion  of  which  may  be  exterminated  with  little 
effort  and  expense,  by  trapping  the  depredators  in  small 
bottles  partly  filled  with  very  sweet  water,  to  which  a  little 
vinegar  has  been  added. 

When  the  Tent -caterpillars  leave  their  nests  for  the  pur 
pose  of  going  to  feed  on  the  leaves,  they  travel  upon  the 
upper  side  of  the  branches ;  and  each  one  leaves  a  thread  of 
silk  behind  it,  which  probably  serves  as  a  clue  to  direct  it 
back  to  the  nest.  The  silken  trails  thus  formed  are  at  first 
scarcely  noticeable ;  but  they  become  very  obvious  after  a 
branch  has  been  travelled  upon  for  a  considerable  time. 
Thus  the  caterpillar  not  only  lives  in  a  silken  house,  but 
covers  its  roads  with  a  silken  carpet.  Like  other  larvae, 
they  shed  their  skins  four  times  before  arriving  at  maturi- 
ty. When  fully  grown,  they  are  about  two  inches  in  length, 
and  frequently  two  inches  and  a  half  long,  fat  and  round. 
The  "American  Entomologist,"  for  which  Fig.  95,  p.  253, 
was  originally  engraved,  states  that  the  eyes  of  this  cater- 
pillar have  the  appearance  of  very  minute  black  points, 
being  ten  in  number,  five  on  each  side  of  the  head.  Their 
position  is  best  seen  by  holding  the  cast-off  skin  of  a  cater- 
pillar towards  the  light  and  examining  it  through  a  magni- 
fying-glass.  Without  claiming  mathematical  exactness,  it 
may  be  stated  that  four  of  them  are  situated  in  a  curved 
line,  forming  half  a  circle,  of  which  circle  the  fifth  occupies 
the  centre.  Owing  to  the  extreme  minuteness  of  the  eyes 
of  caterpillars  in  general,  they  were  formerly  overlooked, 
and  these  insects  were  supposed  to  be  blind.  That  they 
possess  the  sense  of  seeing,  however,  and  -that,  too,  at  a  con- 
siderable distance,  seems  to  be  proved  by  the  following  ex- 
periments. If  a  nest  of  these  caterpillars  be  taken  from  a 
tree  and  placed  upon  the  ground  several  feet  from  it,  they 
will  return  to  the  tree  in  a  direct  line.  In  another  experi- 
ment a  handful  of  caterpillars  was  placed  in  some  tall  grass 


256  THE  APPLE  CULTUBIST. 

between  two  trees,  but  nearer  to  one  than  the  other.  They 
first  crept  up  the  stems  of  the  grass,  as  if  for  the  purpose 
of  taking  an  observation,  and  then  took  up  their  march  for 
the  nearest  tree. 

The  leaves  of  the  apple-tree  constitute  the  food  of  by  far 
the  greater  number  of  this  kind  of  caterpillar.  Nests  are, 
however,  occasionally  seen  on  the  other  common  fruit-trees 
— the  peach,  pear,  plum,  and  cherry,  particularly  the  wild 
cherry.  When  deprived  of  other  food,  they  will  also  eat 
the  leaves  of  the  rose-bush. 

The  active  period  of  this  caterpillar,  that  is,  the  time 
from  their  hatching  to  their  changing  into  chrysalids,  is 
from  five  to  six  weeks;  and  when  we  consider  their  vora 
cious  appetites,  and  that  there  are  about  two  hundred  and 
fifty  individuals  in  each  nest,  we  can  easily  form  an  idea  of 
the  extent  of  their  ravages.  Where  there  happen  to  be 
several  nests  on  one  tree,  or  where  the  tree  itself  is  small, 
they  often  strip  it  of  every  vestige  of  foliage ;  and  in  neg- 
lected localities  whole  orchards  are  sometimes  seen  as  bare 
of  foliage  on  the  first  of  June  as  in  mid-winter.  When 
about  to  construct  its  cocoon,  the  insect  attaches  itself 
by  its  hindmost  feet,  so  as  to  leave  the  anterior  part  of  its 
body  free  for  motion ;  then  extending  its  body,  it  draws 
some  disconnected  lines  across  from  one  side  of  the  angle 
to  the  other,  to  serve  as  outlines  or  stays.  Then,  working 
down  nearer  home,  it  draws  its  lines  more  densely,  so  that 
near  its  body  they  constitute  a  pretty  close  texture,  like  a 
piece  of  loosely-woven  cloth,  through  which,  however,  the 
insect  can  be  seen.  When  the  web  is  finished,  the  insect 
emits  a  yellow  fluid,  with  which  it  besmears  the  inside  of 
the  cocoon,  and  thus  effectually  conceals  itself  from  view. 

The  Apple-tree  Borer. — An  untold  number  of  choice  ap- 
ple-trees have  been  destroyed  every  year  by  Apple-tree 
Borers,  when  the  proprietors  have  wondered  what  could 


EXTERMINATING  NOXIOUS  INSECTS.  257 

have  killed  their  trees?  And  hundreds  of  young  apple- 
trees  all  over  the  country  may  be  found,  at  the  present 
day,  that  have  been  infested  with  borers  for  one  or  more 
years,  which  have  injured  the  growing  trees  so  seriously 
that  they  will  never  recover.  In  our  visits  through  the 
country,  we  frequently  see  orchards  that  are  half  ruined  by 
borers ;  and  the  proprietors  had  not  even  thought  that  there 
was  a  borer  to  be  found.  We  have  frequently  been  asked 
if  we  could  not  suggest  some  good  reason  for  the  singular 
appearance  of  certain  trees;  whereupon,  to  give  ocular 
demonstration  that  borers  were  at  w^ork,  we  have  applied  the 
point  of  a  jack-knife,  dislodging,  in  some  instances,  eight 
or  nine  borers  from  one  tree.  Any  intelligent  observer 
may,  by  close  attention,  soon  learn  how  to  discover,  almost 
at  first  glance,  the  place  where  a  newly-hatched  borer  lies 
concealed.  Usually,  the  Apple-tree  Borer  is  found  at  the 
collar  of  the  tree,  close  to  the  ground  ;  and  they  are  some- 
times detected  on  the  body  and  large  branches  of  a  tree. 
A  small  drop  of  brown  fluid,  resembling  tobacco- juice  in 
color,  usually  reveals  its  presence ;  for  at  that  early  stage 
of  its  development  the  well-known  sawdust -like  excre- 
tions characteristic  of  the  full  grown  larv98  must  not  be 
looked  for. 

The  Apple-tree  Borer  is  the  larva  or  grub  of  a  beautiful 
bug  or  beetle,  which  deposits  its  eggs  at  or  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  on  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  during  the 
months  of  May  and  June;  and  sometimes,  entomologists 
assure  us,  the  eggs  are  oviposited  in  July  and  August  by 
the  parent  bugs  (Fig.  100,  p.  261),  and  in  a  week  or  two 
little  plump  borers  are  hatched,  which  immediately  begin 
to  bore  through  the  tender  bark. 

The  next  spring,  as  soon  as  hard  freezing  is  over,  he  goes 
to  work  vigorously,  still  feeding  on  the  liber,  or  inner  bark. 
By  fall  he  will  have  attained  a  length  of  one-half  to  three- 


258  THE  APPLE  CULTUMIIST. 

fourths  of  an  inch.  Some  entomologists  have  stated  that 
the  borer  does  not  emerge  from  the  tree  until  the  third 
summer.  But  Professor  Fitch,  entomologist  of  the  State 
of  New  York,  says  that 

*'  The  beetle  comes  abroad  in  June,  and  drops  its  eggs  under  the  loose  scales  of 
the  bark,  low  down  near  the  surface  of  the  earth.  The  worm  which  hatches  there- 
from eats  inward  through  the  bark,  till  it  comes  to  the  wood.  It  there  remains, 
feeding  upon  the  soft  outer  layers  of  the  wood,  and  thus  excavates  a  shallow 
round  cavity  under  the  bark,  the  size  of  a  half-dollar ;  though  where  two,  three, 
or  more  worms  are  lodged  in  the  same  tree,  as  they  always  preserve  a  narrow 
partition  between  their  cells,  one  never  gnawing  into  that  of  another,  these  cells, 
by  crowding  upon  one  another,  become  of  an  irregular  form,  and  almost  girdle 
the  tree.  The  cell  is  always  filled  with  worm-dust,  crowded  and  compacted  to- 
gether, some  of  which  becomes  crowded  out  through  a  crack  in  the  bark,  or  a 
hole  made  by  the  worm.  And  it  is  by  seeing  this  sawdust-like  powder  protrud- 
ing out  of  the  bark  that  we  detect  the  presence  of  these  borers  in  the  tree.  The 
worm  continues  to  feed  and  enlarge  its  cell  under  the  bark  for  about  twelve 
mouths,  until  it  has  become  half-grown,  and  is  from  a  half  to  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  in  length.  Its  jaws  have  now  acquired  sufllcient  strength  for  it  to  attack  the 
solid  heart-wood  of  the  tree,  and  it  accordingly  bores  a  cylindrical  hole  from  the 
upper  part  of  its  cell,  upward  in  the  solid  wood,  to  a  length  of  three  or  four  inches 
or  more,  this  hole  inclining  inward  towards  the  centre  of  the  tree,  and  then  curv- 
ing outward  till  its  upper  end  comes  again  to  the  bark.  It  then  stuffs  the  upper 
end  of  this  passage  with  fine  chips  or  worm-dust,  and  its  lower  end  with  short 
fibres  of  wood,  arranged  like  curled  locks  of  hair,  thus  forming  an  elastic  bed  on 
which  to  repose  during  its  pupa  state.  These  operations  being  completed,  it 
throws  off  its  larva  skin  and  becomes  a  pupa,  usually  at  the  close  of  the  second 
summer,  or  about  fifteen  months  after  it  is  hatched  from  the  egg.  In  this  state  it 
lies  through  the  winter,  and  changes  to  its  perfect  form  in  the  following  spring ; 
but  often  continues  to  lie  dormant  several  weeks  after  its  final  change,  until  the 
season  becomes  sufliciently  warm  for  it  to  come  abroad.  Awaking  then  into  life 
and  activity,  it  crawls  upward,  loosening  and  pulling  down  the  chips  and  dust 
that  close  the  upper  end  of  its  burrow,  till  it  reaches  the  bark.  Through  this  it 
cuts  with  its  jaws  a  remarkably  smooth,  round  hole,  of  the  exact  size  requisite  to 
enable  it  to  crawl  out  of  the  tree.  The  sexes  then  pair,  and  the  female  deposits 
another  crop  of  eggs." 

Operations  of  the  Apple-tree  Borer  illustrated. — Fig.  96, 
on  the  opposite  page,  represents  a  section  of  a  young  ap- 
ple-tree which  has  been  bored  by  several  of  these  depre- 
dators. The  dark  spots  represent  the  holes  which  his  sharp 
teeth  have  gouged  out  in  the  solid  wood.  These  little  puny 
worms  destroy  whole  orchards.  After  Apple^ree  Borers 
once  get  beyond  the  reach  of  the  knife,  it  is  exceedingly 
difficult  to  dislodge  the  depredators  and  save  the  trees. 

Efficacious  Remedies. — "  Catch  'em  and  kill  'em "  is  the 
only  remedy  that  we  have  ever  known  to  be  really  efficient. 


EXTEEMINATINO  NOXIOUS  INSECTS. 


259 


A  transverse  section  of  the  stem  of  an  apple-tree 
badly  bored  by  the  Apple-tree  Borer. 


The  beetle  that  de-  Fig.  96. 

posits  the  eggs  is  a 
wise  philosopher,  as 
to  selecting  a  con- 
genial place  for  ovi- 
positing the  eggs 
for  the  grubs.  The 
bark  of  a  young  ap- 
ple-tree close  to  the 
ground  is  exceed  ■ 
ingly  tender  at  the 
collar ;  consequent- 
ly the  young  larva 
can  readily  cut  his 
way  through  the 
bark  to  the  wood. 
Every  tree  should  be  examined  carefully  at  least  every 
month,  during  the  growing  season.  As  a  "workman  is 
known  by  his  chips,"  so  is  the  borer  traced  by  the  dust  or 
cuttings  which  he  throws  out  behind  him.  Clear  away 
the  grass  and  weeds  from  the  trunk  and  exposed  roots  of 
the  tree,  but  do  it  carefully,  as  the  cuttings  or  chips  eject- 
ed by  the  young  grub  will  often  be  found  standing  up 
quite  erect  from  his  entrance,  being  glued  together  in  some 
manner  by  the  industrious  borer.  By  scraping  off  the  bark 
carefully,  you  will  find  the  grub  in  a  snug  little  bed  upon, 
or  slightly  sunk  into,  the  bark.  It  will  be  only  a  small  job 
to  destroy  every  invader  the  first  season,  as  they  are  still  in 
the  bark,  where  birds  often  take  out  every  one.  Wood- 
peckers frequently  peck  holes  through  the  bark  and  take 
them  out.  One  or  two  months  after  the  larvae  have  com- 
menced boring,  a  person  can  see  exactly  where  every  one  is 
located,  and  can  kill  them  with  the  point  of  a  penknife. 
But,  after  they  have  been  boring  a  year  or  more,  the  true 


260 


THE  APPLE  CVLTURIST, 


way  is  to  employ  a  small  gouge  and  mallet,  and  cut  grooves 
up  and  down  the  tree,  until  every  borer  is  removed.  Then 
fill  every  recess  with  grafting-wax,  and  bind  it  around  with 
cloth.  We  might  record  a  dozen  other  remedies  which  will 
not  be  effectual.  But  we  know  cold  steel  will  never  fail  to 
do  the  job  effectually. 

A  Preventive  of  the  Borer. — In  case  a  person  is  certain 
no  eggs  have  been  deposited  in  his  young  trees,  it  will  not 
be  difficult  to  keep  beetles  from  depositing  their  eggs  in 
the  bark  by  scraping  away  the  earth  an  inch  below  the  col- 
lar of  the  tree,  then  wrapping  two  or  three  thicknesses  of 
heavy  brown  paper  around  the  body  of  the  tree  for  two  or 
three  feet  high,  tying  it  in  three  places  with  elastic  wrap- 
ping-thread, and  smearing  the  paper  with  a  heavy  coat  of 
coal-tar.  (See  page  166.)  No  beetle  or  bug  will  deposit 
eggs  in  a  tree  thus  protected.  It  is  said  that  the  bugs  are 
very  shy,  and  work  only  in  the  night.  But  we  have  often 
met  with  them  in  the  day-time,  and  have  easily  caught  them. 
Fig.  97  represents  the  parent  bug,  or  beetle  of  the  Flat- 
headed  Borer  {Chrysohothris  buprestis),  and  Fig.  98  is  the 

borer  of  life  size.     Although  the 
Flat-headed  Borer  evinces  a  man- 

\\/^  /f        ^^^^s,  ^^^^*  partiality  for  the  various 
™»  fS^^vl  sub-varieties  of  the  Pyrus  malus 

trees  and  Pyrus  haccata,  as  well 
as  for  our  own  indigenous  crabs, 
it  must  not  be  imagined  that  it 
I   \aVW  \  ^^S     disdains  other  food.     We  have 

'        -^     ^  found  these  borers  preyinff  upon 

Flat-headed     ,  ,  ,        .  ^  -. 

Apple-tree  the  pear,  though  seldom ;  and  oc- 
casionally upon  the  Mazzard  and 
other  cherry-trees.  The  same  means  are  used  to  combat 
both ;  although  of  course  allowance  must  be  made  for  the 
peculiarities  in  the  habits  and  modes  of  life  of  each. 


Fig.  97. 


Flo;.  98. 


Parent  bug  of  the 
Flat-headed  Ap- 
ple-tree Borer. 


EXTERMINATING  NOXIOUS  INSECTS. 


261 


Fig.  100. 


Parent  bug  of  tho 
Round  -  headed 
Borer. 


The  Round-headed  Borer  (Sa-  Fig.  99. 
per  da  bivittata),  Fig.  99,  is  often 
found  in  any  part  of  the  body 
of  an  apple-tree,  although  the 
parent-bug  (Fig.  100)  will  seek 
the  tender  bark  at  the  collar  of 
the  tree  first,  as  a  suitable  place 
for  depositing  its  eggs.  Some- 
times both  species  dwell  togeth- 
er in  the  same  orchard  and  on  '^Appie^-^tvlt 
the  same  tree;  often,  however,  ^^rer. 
the  Round-headed  Borer  will  be  found  mainly  to  infest  a  cer- 
tain orchard,  while  another  orchard,  not  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
off,  will  be  exclusively  attacked  by  the  Flat-headed  Borer. 

It  is  interesting  to  dwell  on  the  habits  of  such  depreda- 
tors. But  we  must  cut  every  thing  short  for  the  sake  of 
giving  practical  directions  for  preventing  the  ravages  of 
these  pests.  Red-headed  Woodpeckers  will  destroy  every 
borer  that  can  be  found.  Hence,  let  such  birds 
be  encouraged  to  frequent  apple-orchards.  Then 
let  the  bug-traps  be  kept  in  running  order,  to 
destroy  the  beetles,  the  moth-millers,  and  the 
flies,  when  they  are  about  to  deposit  their 
eggs  or  spin  cocoons.  After  borers  have  really 
bored  deeply  into  a  tree,  there  is  no  other  prac- 
ticable way  to  dispose  of  them  than  to  cut 
them  out  with  a  joiner's  gouge  and  mallet,  and 
cover  the  wounds  well  with  grafting-wax. 

The  Forest-tent  Caterpillar  {Glisiocampa  syU 
vatica). — This  caterpillar  (Fig.  101)  is  fi-equent- 
ly  confounded  with  the  "  American  Tent-cater- 
pillar" {Glisiocampa  Americana),  Fig.  95,  p. 
253.  Although  its  ravages  are  usually  confined 
to  the  forest  and  groves,  the  depredators  often 


Fig.  Ml. 


262 


THE  APPLE  CULTUBIST. 


appear  in  large  numbers  in  apple-orchards,  where  they  do 
great  damage  if  permitted  to  flourish  unmolested.  Pro- 
fessor Fitch  says  that 

"  This  caterpillar,  as  seen  after  it  has  forsaken  its  nest  and  is  wandering  ahont, 
is  IJ  inches  long  and  0.20  thick.  It  is  cylindrical  and  of  a  pale  bine  color,  tinged 
low  down  on  each  side  with  greenish  gray,  and  is  everywhere  sprinkled  over 
with  black  points  and  dots.  Along  its  back  is  a  row  of  ten  or  eleven  oval  or  dia- 
mond-shaped white  spots,  which  are  similarly  sprinkled  with  black  points  and 
dots,  and  are  placed  one  on  the  fore  part  of  each  segment.  Behind  each  of  these 
spots  is  a  much  smaller  white  spot,  occupying  the  middle  of  each  segment.  The 
intervening  space  is  black,  which  color  also  forms  a  border  surrounding  each  of 
the  spots,  and  on  each  side  is  an  elevated  black  dot,  from  which  arises  usually 
four  long  black  hairs.  The  hind  part  of  each  segment  is  occupied  by  three  crin- 
kled, and  more  or  less  interrupted  pale  orange-yellow  lines,  which  are  edged  with 
black.  And  on  each  side  is  a  continuous  and  somewhat  broader  stripe  of  the 
same  yellow  color,  similarly  edged  on  each  of  its  sides  with  black.  Lower  down 
upon  each  side  is  a  paler  yellow  or  cream-colored  stripe,  the  edges  of  which  are 
more  jagged  and  irregular  than  those  of  the  one  above  it,  and  this  stripe  also  is 
bordered  with  black,  broadly  and  unevenly  on  its  upper  side,  and  very  narrowly 
on  its  lower  side.  The  back  is  clothed  with  numerous  fine  fox-colored  hairs,  and 
low  down  on  each  side  are  numerous  coarser  whitish  ones.  On  the  under  side  is 
a  large  oval  black  spot  on  each  segment,  except  the  anterior  ones.  The  legs  and 
prolegs  are  black,  and  clothed  with  short  whitish  hairs.  The  head  is  of  a  dark, 
bluish  color,  freckled  with  numerous  black  dots,  and  clothed  with  short  black- 
ish and  fox-colored  hairs.  The  second  segment  or  neck  is  edged  anteriorly  with 
cream  white,  which  color  is  more  broad  upon  the  sides.  The  third  and  fourth 
segments  have  each  a  large  black  spot  on  each  side.  The  instant  it  is  immersed 
in  spirits  the  blue  color  of  this  caterpillar  vanishes,  and  it  becomes  black." 

The  accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  102)  will  give  the 
reader  a  correct  idea  of  some  of  the  stages  of  existence 
through  which  this  insect  passes.     At  a,  the  egg-mass  is 


Fig.  102. 


represented  as  it  is 
found  attached  to 
small  twigs  of  ap- 
ple -  trees.  These 
eggs  may  be  read- 
ily distinguished 
from  the  eggs  of 
the  common  Amer- 
ican Tent -caterpil- 
lar, by  the  unif  orm- 


(i,  the  eggs  of  the  Forest  Tent-caterpillar;  6,  the  parent  ly  Cylindrical  diam- 


miller  that  lays  the  eggs ;  c,  transverse  section  of  one     ^  j    i.      u   • 

oftheeggs;  s,magniled.  eter,  and  by  bemg 


CL 


EXTERMINATING  NOXIOUS  INSECTS.  263 

docked-off  squarely  at  each  end.  In  each  of  these  masses 
there  are  about  four  hundred  eggs.  Hence,  as  every  e^g 
will  produce  a  caterpillar,  as  certainly  as  a  kernel  of  Indian 
corn  will  produce  a  stalk,  by  cutting  off  every  cluster  of 
eggs  at  any  time  before  they  hatch,  about  four  hundred 
hungry  caterpillars  will  be  destroyed  at  one  stroke. 

The  eggs  are  deposited,  in  some  localities,  during  the  lat- 
ter part  of  June.  The  embryo  develops  during  the  hot 
summer  weather ;  and  the  yet  unborn  larva  is  fully  formed 
by  the  time  winter  comes  on.  The  caterpillars  hatch  with 
the  first  warm  weather  in  spring — generally  from  the  mid- 
dle to  the  last  of  March,  and  in  April  —  and  though  the 
buds  of  their  food-plant  may  not  have  opened  at  the  time, 
and  though  it  may  freeze  severely  afterwards,  yet  these  lit- 
tle creatures  are  wonderfully  hardy,  and  can  fast  for  three 
whole  weeks,  if  need  be,  and  withstand  any  amount  of  in- 
clement weather.  The  very  moment  these  little  larvae  are 
born,  they  commence  spinning  a  web  wherever  they  go. 
At  this  time  they  are  black,  with  pale  hairs,  and  are  always 
found  either  huddled  together  or  travelling  in  file  along 
the  silken  paths  which  they  form  when  in  search  of  food. 
In  about  two  weeks  from  the  time  they  commence  feeding, 
they  go  through  their  first  moult,  having  first  grown  paler, 
or  of  a  light  yellowish-brown,  with  the  extremities  rather 
darker  than  the  middle  of  the  body,  with  the  little  warts 
which  give  rise  to  the  hairs  quite  distinct,  and  a  conspicu- 
ous dark  interrupted  line  each  side  of  the  back.  After  the 
first  moult,  they  are  characterized  principally  by  two  pale 
yellowish  subdorsal  lines.  After  the  second  moult,  which 
takes  place  in  about  a  week  from  the  first,  the  characteris- 
tic pale  spots  on  the  back  appear,  the  upper  pale  line  be- 
comes yellow,  the  lower  one  white,  and  the  space  between 
them  bluish.  Very  soon  they  undergo  a  third  moult,  after 
which  the  colors  all  become  more  distinct  and  fresh;  the 


264  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

head  and  anal  plate  have  a  soft,  bluish,  velvety  appearance, 
and  the  hairs  seem  more  dense.  After  undergoing  a  fourth 
moult  without  material  change  in  appearance,  they  acquire 
their  full  growth  in  about  six  weeks  from  the  time  of  first 
feeding.  At  this  stage  of  development,  the  larva  appears 
fully  grown,  and  may  be  seen  wandering  singly  over  differ- 
ent trees,  along  roads,  or  on  the  tops  of  fences,  in  search  of 
a  suitable  place  to  form  its  cocoon.  It  usually  contents  it- 
self with  folding  a  leaf  or  drawing  several  together  for  this 
purpose,  though  it  frequently  spins  up  under  fence  boards 
and  in  other  sheltered  situations.  The  cocoon  is  very  much 
like  that  of  the  common  American  Tent-caterpillar,  being 
formed  of  a  loose  exterior  covering  of  white  silk,  with  the 
hairs  of  the  larva  interwoven,  and  by  a  more  compact  oval 
inner  pod  that  is  made  stiff  by  the  meshes  being  filled 
with  a  thin  yellowish  paste  from  the  mouth  of  the  larva, 
which  pastC)  when  dried,  gives  the  cocoon  the  appearance 
of  behig  dusted  with  powdered  sulphur.  Three  days  after 
the  cocoon  is  completed,  the  caterpillar  casts  its  skin  for 
the  last  time,  and  becomes  a  chrysalis  of  a  reddish-brown 
color,  slightly  dusted  with  a  pale  powder,  and  densely 
clothed  with  short,  pale-yellow  hairs,  which  at  the  blunt 
and  rounded  extremity  are  somewhat  larger  and  darker. 
In  a  couple  of  weeks  more,  or  during  the  forepart  of  June, 
the  moths  commence  to  issue,  and  fly  about  at  night.  This 
moth  bears  a  considerable  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Amer- 
ican Tent-caterpillar  (Fig.  93,  p.  250). 

From  the  very  moment  it  is  born  till  after  the  fourth  or 
last  moult,  this  caterpillar  spins  a  web,  and  lives  more  or 
less  in  company ;  but  fi'om  the  fact  that  this  web  is  always 
attached  close  to  the  branches  and  trunks  of  the  trees  in- 
fested, it  is  often  overlooked ;  and  several  writers  have  er- 
roneously declared  that  it  does  not  spin.  At  each  success- 
ive moult,  all  the  individuals  of  a  batch  collect  and  huddle 


EXTERMINATING  NOXIOUIS  INSECTS.  265 

together  upon  a  common  web  for  two  or  three  days,  and 
during  these  periods — though  more  active  than  most  other 
caterpillars  in  this  so-called  sickness — they  are  quite  slug- 
gish. During  the  last  or  fourth  moult  they  frequently 
come  low  down  on  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  and,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  gregarious  larvae  of  the  Hand-maid  Moth  {Datana 
ministra),  which  often  denude  our  black-walnut  trees,  they 
unwittingly  court  destruction  by  collecting  in  such  masses 
within  man's  reach.  From  the  time  they  are  born  till  after 
the  third  moult,  these  worms  will  drop  and  suspend  them- 
selves mid-air,  if  the  branch  upon  which  they  are  feeding 
be  suddenly  jarred.  Therefore,  when  they  have  been  al- 
lowed to  multiply  in  an  orchard,  this  habit  will  suggest  va- 
rious modes  of  destroying  them.  They  can  often  be  slaugh- 
tered en  masse  when  collected  on  the  trunks  during  the  last 
moulting  period.  They  will  more  generally  be  found  on 
the  leeward  side  of  the  tree,  if  the  wind  has  been  blowing 
in  one  direction  for  a  few  days.  The  cocoons  may  also  be 
searched  for,  and  many  of  the  moths  caught  by  attracting 
them  towards  the  light.  But  pre-eminently  the  most  effect- 
ive artificial  mode  of  preventing  this  insect's  injuries  is,  to 
search  for  and  destroy  the  egg-masses  in  the  winter-time, 
when  the  trees  are  leafless.  This  course  is  the  more  effi- 
cient because  it  is  more  easily  pursued,  and  nips  the  evil  in 
the  bud.  Tarred  bandages,  or  any  of  the  many  remedies 
used  to  prevent  the  female  Canker-worm  (p.  233)  from  as- 
cending trees,  can  only  be  useful  with  the  Forest  Tent-cat- 
erpillar, when  it  is  intended  to  temporarily  protect  an  unin- 
fested  tree  from  the  straggling  worms  which  may  travel 
from  surrounding  trees. 

The  Codling-worm  Moth. — Doubtless  most  persons  who 
are  in  the  habit  of  eating  crude  apples  have  repeatedly  no- 
ticed the  Httle  whitish  worm  which  is  so  often  found  bur- 
rowing at  the  core  of  the  fruit,  and  filling  it  with  its  dis- 

12 


266  THE  APPLE  GULTURIST. 

gusting  excrement.  But  probably  not  one  fruit-grower  out 
of  a  hundred  has  ever  seen  the  little  moth  which  is  pro- 
duced from  this  worm,  and  which,  in  its  turn,  gives  birth  to 
a  fresh  generation  of  such  worms.  This  moth  is  variously 
known  as  the  Apple-worm  Moth,  or  the  Codling- worm  Moth. 
The  Apple-worm  Moth  makes  its  first  appearance  about  the 
first  of  May  to  the  forepart  of  June,  and  a  little  earlier  or 
later,  according  to  the  season  or  the  latitude.  Usually,  at 
the  time  it  appears,  the  young  apples  are  already  set,  and 
are  beginning  to  be  about  as  large  as  a  hazel-nut.  After 
coupling  in  the  usual  manner,  the  female  moth  then  pro- 
ceeds to  deposit  a  single  eg^  in  the  blossom  end  of  the  fruit, 
flying  from  fruit  to  fruit,  until  her  stock  of  eggs  (amount- 
ing to  two  or  three  hundred)  is  exhausted.  Soon  after  ac- 
complishing this  process,  she  dies  of  old  age  and  exhaus- 
tion. In  a  very  few  cases,  the  egg  is  deposited  in  the  cavi- 
ty at  the  stem-end  of  the  fruit,  or  simply  glued  on  to  the 
smooth  surface  of  the  fruit.  In  a  short  time  afterwards, 
the  egg,  no  matter  where  it  is  located,  hatches  out,  and  the 
young  larva  forthwith  proceeds  to  burrow  into  the  flesh  of 
the  apple,  feeding  as  he  goes,  making  his  head-quarters  in 
the  core.  In  three  or  four  weeks'  time,  it  is  full-grown ; 
and  shortly  before  this,  the  infested  apple  generally  falls  to 
the  ground.  The  larva  then  crawls  out  of  the  fruit  through 
a  large  hole  in  the  cheek,  I,  which  it  has  bored  several  days 
beforehand  for  that  express  purpose,  and  usually  makes  for 
the  trunk  of  the  tree,  up  which  it  climbs,  and  spins  around 
itself  a  silken  cocoon  of  a  dirty  white  color,  in  any  con- 
venient crevice  it  can  find,  the  crotch  of  a  tree  being  a  fa- 
vorite spot.  Here  it  transforms  into  the  pupa  state,  and 
towards  the  latter  part  of  July  or  the  forepart  of  August 
it  bursts  forth  in  the  moth  state.  It  also  appears  in  the 
former  part  of  the  growing  season,  and  it  has  been  noticed 
that  a  larva  will  occasionally  spin  its  cocoon  on  the  under- 


EXTEBMINATING  NOXIOUS  INSECTS. 


267 


surface  of  some  board  lying  flat  on  the  ground,  instead  of 
climbing  the  tree  in  the  usual  manner. 

Fig.  103,  which  was  originally  prepared  for  the  "Culti- 
vator," will  furnish  a  large  amount  of  information  concern- 
ing this  depredator  of  our  apple-orchards  in  various  stages. 

Fig.  103. 


The  Codling  Moth,  or  Apple-worm. 


At  a,  the  larva  of  natural  size  is  shown.  The  same  is  rep- 
resented at  h,  highly  magnified.  At  c  a  cocoon  is  shown, 
and  cl  represents  the  pupa  within  the  cocoon.  At  e  a  per- 
fect insect  is  shown  at  rest.  At  f  the  same  miller,  or  fly, 
is  represented  with  its  wings  spread.  At  ^  a  small  apple 
is  shown,  with  the  young  larva  just  entering  the  fruit.  In 
many  instances,  when  apple-trees  are  growing  where  the 
soil  is  rich  in  apple-producing  material,  the  expansion  of  the 
fruit  will  often  exceed  the  ravages  of  the  larva  that  is  eat- 
ing its  passage  to  the  core.  If  they  can  not  reach  the  core, 
the  fruit,  in  most  instances,  continues  to  grow,  and  the  lar- 
va dies.  "We  frequently  see  apples  that  are  imperfect  and 
much  depressed  on  one  side  of  the  basin,  the  cause  of  which 
is  usually  attributable  to  the  working  of  a  larva  when  the 
fruit  was  very  small.     As  the  apple  grew  faster  than  the 


268  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

larva  could  eat,  the  invader  perished,  and  the  apple  was  in- 
jured but  little. 

Remedies  for  the  Codling-worm  Moth. — If  the  millers  can 
be  caught,  of  course  no  eggs  will  be  deposited  from  which 
larvae  can  be  hatched.  Hence,  let  the  bottles  of  sweetened 
water  and  vinegar  (Fig.  51,  p.  llV)  be  employed.  A  large 
proportion  of  these  flies  may  be  trapped  in  bottles  and  by 
fires,  or  by  the  lamp-trap  (Fig.  104).  After  the  larva,  Jc, 
Fig.  104.  reaches  the  core  of  an  apple, 

^^•■^.v^^    ^  ^  the  fruit  will  usually  drop  from 

^  '^  -J*  ,-^£S«^n  ^'  ^^^  ^^^®  before  it  has  ripened. 

c^  ^  ^-^"^'*?^/M\t'-'^  '^  I^  ^  ^^^  <^^ys  after  this,  the 
^^■^^  %^Q^j    «*       larva  bores  out  of  the  apple  and 
^  winds  itself  up  in  a  cocoon,  e, 
^  beneath  shreds  of  bark,  as  al- 
ready stated. 

In  August  or  September,  or 

A  nocturnal  insect-catcher.  ,i  4.  •  j.i,  •  x 

the  next  sprmg,  these  msects 
reappear,  in  time  to  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  calyx  of  the 
young  fruit.  If  little  birds  are  numerous  among  apple- 
trees,  they  will  devour  almost  every  larva  before  they  can 
produce  a  cocoon  or  find  a  refuge  where  they  will  be  safe 
from  birds.  These  larvae  are  fat  and  tender  worms,  and  all 
kinds  of  birds  devour  them  with  avidity.  Hence  the  ad- 
vantage of  encouraging  the  propagation  of  these  little  song- 
sters— like  the  yellow-bird,  wren,  robin, "  little  chippie,"  and 
many  others  that  choose  the  fruit-orchard  for  their  abode. 
Where  little  birds  have  been  exterminated,  apples  are  apt 
to  be  wormy.  Some  pomologists  twist  a  rope  of  hay  or 
straw,  say  half  as  large  as  a  man's  wrist,  and  wind  it  sev- 
eral times  around  the  body  of  an  apple-tree,  as  shown  by 
Fig.  92,  p.  247.  Beneath  this  band  the  larvae  will  take  ref- 
uge and  spin  their  cocoons,  c.  The  band  should  be  removed 
soon  after  the  cocoons  are  formed,  and  the  cocoons  destroy- 


EXTERMINATING  NOXIOUS  INSECTS,  269 

ed.  In  some  instances,  at  the  West,  these  depredators  are 
so  numerous  that  old  cloths  are  laid  in  the  crotches  of  the 
branches  for  a  few  weeks,  then  they  are  passed  through 
a  clothes-wringer  to  crush  the  cocoons,  after  which  the 
cloths  are  returned  to  trap  other  insects.  If  swine  and 
sheep  are  permitted  to  range  about  the  trees,  they  will 
usually  destroy  the  fallen  fruit  with  the  larvae.  When 
swine  are  not  permitted  to  have  access  to  the  orchard,  the 
fallen  fruit  should  all  be  picked  up  and  crushed,  to  destroy 
the  larvae.  Hence  we  see  that  an  incessant  warfare  must 
be  maintained  if  the  fruit  is  saved.  These  depredators 
must  be  caught  and  killed,  or  they  will  destroy  the  fruit. 
The  habits  of  this  insect  are  now  so  thoroughly  understood, 
that  it  can  be  combated  successfully  in  every  stage  of  its 
existence.  By  keeping  the  bottles  containing  sweetened 
water  (Fig.  51,  p.  117),  and  the  pan  half-filled  with  thin 
molasses,  with  a  lighted  lamp  near  it  (Fig.  104,  p.  268),  in 
the  orchard  every  night,  in  good  order,  almost  every  insect 
will  be  trapped  in  a  few  days. 

Apple-twig  Borers. — In  many  sections  of  country,  Ap- 
ple-twig Borers  injure  valuable  trees  by  boring  small  twigs, 
which  often  are  so  nearly  cut  in  two  that  the  wind  breaks 
them  off.  The  only  remedy  thus  far  discovered  is  to  "  catch 
'em  and  kill  'em."  A  constant  watch  must  be  kept  over 
every  fruit-tree  for  insect  enemies.  Then,  if  any  thing  is 
discovered  that  resembles  the  work  of  the  Apple-twig  Borer, 
let  the  branches  be  examined  with  care,  and  the  depreda- 
tors destroyed.  Cold  steel  is  a  certain  remedy  for  this  pest 
of  the  apple-orchard.  As  these  borers  originate  from  a 
parent  insect  that  can  be  trapped  in  a  bottle,  the  bottle- 
traps  will  be  found  the  most  satisfactory  way  of  destroy- 
ing this  kind  of  depredators. 

Bark  Lice  (Aphis  mali). — In  many  orchards,  bark  lice 
are  scarcely  known ;  while  in  others,  where  trees  are  young 


270  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

and  thrifty,  bark  lice  cover  almost  every  twig.  Dr.  Fitch, 
entomologist  of  the  State  of  [N'ew  York,  writes  of  the  Apple- 
bark  Louse  {Aspidiotus  conchiformis)  that 

"  The  Apple-bark  Louse  makes  its  appearance  as  a  little  brown  scale,  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  long,  the  shape  of  an  oyster-shell,  fixed  to  the  smooth  bark,  resembling 
a  little  blister.  This  scale  is  the  dried  remains  of  the  body  of  the  female,  covering 
and  protecting  her  eggs,  from  a  dozen  to  a  hundred  of  which  lie  in  the  cavity  un- 
der each  scale.  These  eggs  hatch  the  latter  part  of  May,  and  the  young  lice  dif- 
fuse themselves  over  the  bark,  appearing  as  minute  white  atoms,  almost  invisible 
to  the  eye.  They  puncture  the  bark,  and  suck  the  sap  from  it.  The  females  soon 
fix  themselves  and  become  stationary.  They  die,  and  become  overspread  with  a 
substance  resembling  fine  blue  mould,  which  wearing  off",  the  little  oyster-shaped 
scale  again  appears  in  July.  They  sometimes  become  so  multiplied  that  the  bark' 
of  the  trunk  and  limbs  is  everywhere  covered  and  crowded  with  them ;  and  if  the 
tree  is  weakened  by  borers,  fire  blight,  or  other  disease,  these  bark  lice,  thus  mul- 
tiplying, kill  it." 

Numerous  remedies  have  been  suggested  for  the  Bark 
Louse,  among  which  are  the  following :  The  bodies  of  the 
trees  and  large  branches  are  scraped,  if  covered  with  rough 
bark,  and  afterwards  smeared  with  thin  soft-soap  applied 
with  a  swab.  Some  have  used  equal  parts  of  pine-tar  and 
linseed-oil  boiled  together,  and  applied  when  warm  and  thin. 
We  have  employed  equal  parts  of  pine-pitch  and  linseed-oil, 
or  tallow  mingled  together  by  heating,  which  was  applied 
with  a  swab.  If  there  is  much  rough  bark  on  the  trees,  it 
must  all  be  removed ;  and  if  the  surface  is  shaved  smoothly 
before  the  material  is  applied,  all  the  better.  We  never 
find  bark  lice  attached  to  thick  and  tough  bark.  They 
must  have  tender  and  thrifty  bark,  which  they  can  punc- 
ture, in  order  to  extract  the  sap.  If  the  young  and  tender 
bark  be  thoroughly  soaped,  and  a  smooth  surface  formed, 
without  being  protected  by  liquid  pitch,  all  the  soap  will  be 
removed  during  a  heavy  rain,  and  the  bark  lice  will  be 
provided  with  just  such  quarters  as  they  desire;  but  the 
covering  of  pitch  and  linseed-oil  will  form  a  varnish  which 
will  thoroughly  exclude  every  thing  that  is  ever  found  ad- 
hering to  the  bark  of  apple-trees.  No  borer  will  ever  at- 
tempt to  deposit  an  Qgg  in  the  bark  that  is  varnished.     As 


EXTEBMINATINQ  NOXIOUS  INSECTS.  271 

this  varnish  will  crack  when  the  growing  trees  expand,  let 
more  varnish  be  applied  early  every  spring,  and  bark  lice 
will  not  touch  a  tree.  Tobacco-water,  soda- wash,  and  quas- 
sia only  prepare  the  bark  for  the  occupancy  of  these  depre- 
dators, rendering  the  surface  soft  and  tender.  Two  dimes' 
worth  of  pitch  and  tallow  will  be  of  more  value  in  exclud- 
ing lice  than  a  dollar's  worth  of  soap  or  potash-water. 

Some  pomologists  have  stated  that  they  have  employed 
a  decoction  of  tobacco,  with  excellent  results,  in  the  follow- 
ing manner :  Procure  a  few  pounds  of  leaf-tobacco,  and  boil 
it  to  an  impalpable  pulp,  which  is  afterwards  mingled  with 
cold  soft-soap,  and  worked  until  the  mass  is  of  the  consist- 
ence of  thick  paint.  The  rough  bark  is  then  scraped  off 
the  trees,  after  which  a  heavy  coat  of  this  daubing  is  ap- 
plied both  to  bodies  and  large  branches.  This  material  is 
excellent  for  the  purpose  intended,  so  long  as  only  a  thin 
layer  of  it  will  remain  on  the  tree ;  yet  two  or  three  heavy 
and  protracted  storms  will  wash  nearly  all  of  it 

.  .  Fig.  105. 

to  the  ground.    But  the  liquid  grafting-wax  will 
adhere  for  several  years.    The  expense  of  prepar-    K^'^S^j 
ing  and  applying  it  will  not  exceed  the  expense 
of  the  tobacco  and  soap. 

The  Oyster-shell  Bark  Louse. — Figure  105  rep- 
resents a  small  part  of  a  branch  covered  with  the 
eggs  of  the  Oyster-shell  Bark  Louse.  The  only 
true  remedy — we  repeat — is  to  scrape  them  off 
and  coat  the  smooth  bark  with  liquid  grafting- 
wax.  Lice  are  wonderfully  destructive  to  both 
the  growth  and  health  of  trees ;  and  the  rapidity 
with  which  they  increase  when  unmolested  is  as- 
tonishing. They  are  the  color  of  the  bark  itself, 
and  in  shape  and  size  like  a  flax-seed.  In  fre- 
quent cases  they  actually  kill  the  branch  they 
settle  upon ;  and  in  young  trees  often  kill  them    Bark  Lice. 


272  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

altogether.  The  Oyster-shell  Bark  Lice  are  to  be  dreaded 
more  than  any  other,  as  they  do  greater  injury  to  young 
trees.  This  pest  is  said  to  be  migratory  in  its  habits,  often 
attacking  the  thriftiest  as  well  as  the  weakest  trees,  and  its 
progress  should  be  arrested  before  it  ravages  the  whole 
orchard.  Bark  lice  are  devoured  by  millions  by  wrens, 
chickadees,  and  other  similar  birds  ;  and  "  lady-bugs  "  also 
destroy  large  numbers  of  them. 

The  Scale  Insect  {JETomoptera)  is  one  of  the  many  ene- 
mies of  the  apple,  belonging  to  a  family  that  contains  more 
anomalous  forms  than  any  other.  All  this  family  are  sup- 
plied with  a  suctorial  mouth,  arising  so  far  back  on  the  un- 
der side  of  the  head  as  apparently  to  come  from  the  breast 
in  some  species.  The  present  insect  is  included  in  the  ge- 
nus Coccus,  and  has  for  its  near  relations  some  that  have 
been  useful  to  man  from  the  time  of  the  ancients,  produc- 
ing valuable  dyes,  the  cochineal  being  one  of  them ;  and  it 
is  calculated  that  in  one  pound  of  this  dye  there  are  70,000 
of  these  little  insects.  When  first  hatched  from  the  egg,  it 
possesses  considerable  ambulatory  powers,  and  can  crawl 
all  over  a  tree  and  select  a  situation.  It  then  inserts  its 
rostrum  into  the  tender  bark  and  draws  the  sap ;  and  such 
a  constant  drain,  by  the  countless  numbers  found  upon  a 
tree,  must  be  very  injurious.  The  insect  remains  in  this 
position  until  death,  in  the  female,  undergoing  its  trans- 
formations, which,  instead  of  producing  a  higher  state  of 
development,  as  in  most  other  forms,  has  a  contrary  effect, 
it  becoming,  in  fact,  a  mere  inert,  fleshy  mass,  in  some  al- 
lied species  losing  even  the  rudiments  of  limbs  and  all  ap- 
pearance of  articulation.  The  male,  on  the  contrary,  which 
is  much  smaller,  in  casting  off  his  pupa  skin,  obtains  pretty 
large  wings,  and  well-developed  limbs,  armed  with  a  single 
claw,  and  his  mouth  becomes  obsolete ;  he  then  sallies  forth 
in  search  of  his  partner,  of  which  he  sees  nothing  but  the 


EXTERMINATING  NOXIOUS  INSECTS.  273 

pupa  envelope.  The  female  afterwards  becomes  distended 
with  eggs.  She  then  gradually  dries  up,  leaving  the  shell 
of  her  body  for  a  covering  to  the  newly-hatched  young,  of 
which  there  are  two  broods  in  a  year. 

Harris  recommends  a  preventive :  To  two  parts  of  soft- 
soap  add  eight  of  water,  and  mix  as  much  lime  with  it  as 
will  make  a  stiff  whitewash,  and  apply  with  a  brush  to  the 
trunk  and  branches  of  the  infected  trees,  in  the  month  of 
June,  when  the  young  insects  are  newly  hatched. 

Root  Lice,  how  to  Exterminate. — In  many  sections  of 
country,  roots  of  apple-trees,  and  some  roots  of  other  fruit- 
trees,  are  infested  with  immense  numbers  of  root  lice. 
The  most  effective  remedy  is  to  apply  liberal  quantities  of 
ashes,  lime,  or  barn-yard  manure,  and  dig  them  into  the  soil 
round  about  the  trees,  as  far  as  the  branches  extend.  Dr. 
Warden  recommends  boiling  cheap  tobacco,  or  the  stems, 
in  water;  after  the  strength  has  been  extracted  from  the 
tobacco,  skim  out  the  stems  and  leaves,  and  to  each  bucket- 
ful of  the  water  add,  say,  one  quart  of  soap.  When  the 
soap  becomes  mixed,  and  the  decoction  is  sufficiently  cool- 
ed, it  is  fit  for  use.  A  good  plan  is  to  take  a  barrel  to  con- 
tain the  mixture  to  a  central  part  of  the  ground,  where  the 
trees  are  to  be  planted,  and  when  one  lot  of  trees  is  taken 
out  for  planting,  another  lot  may  be  put  in.  In  this  way, 
with  but  little  loss  of  time,  the  trees  will  be  immersed  long 
enough  to  kill  all  the  lice  there  may  be  on  the  roots.  Tree- 
roots  once  free  from  lice  may  be  kept  so  by  smearing 
the  trunks  above  ground,  each  year,  with  boiling-hot  soap. 
This  should  be  done  in  the  month  of  June,  when  it  will 
answer  the  double  purpose  of  keeping  away  the  lice,  and 
preventing  the  Apple-tree  Borers  from  depositing  their 
eggs.  The  soap  put  upon  the  trunks  of  trees,  while  it  is 
hot,  strikes  into  the  bark,  and  is  not  soon  washed  out. 
Make  a  liberal  use  of  the  soap  at  the  base  of  the  trunks, 

12* 


274  THE  APPLE  CULTUMIST. 

as  it  is  at  these  parts  that  the  seperda  prefers  to  lay  its 
eggs ;  and  just  below  the  surface  it  is  that  root  lice  assem- 
ble before  going  upon  the  roots  for  the  winter.  In  some 
instances,  where  the  soil  is  unusually  Ught  and  porous,  two 
or  three  wagon-loads  of  clay  spread  around  a  tree,  and 
worked  into  the  soil,  will  operate  as  a  satisfactory  prevent- 
ive of  lice. 

After  root  lice  have  deprived  a  root  of  its  juices,  they 
shift  to  others  which  will  afford  the  needed  supply  of  food. 
Thus  one  root  after  another  yields  up  its  nutriment  to  these 
pests,  until  the  tree  is  either  killed,  or  so  weakened  that  it 
is  attacked  in  all  its  parts  by  borers.  In  the  summer  num- 
bers of  them  may  always  be  found  in  the  tops  of  the  trees, 
under  the  partial  cover  of  new  wood  and  bark  growth, 
where  it  is  forming  over  fresh  wounds  made  in  pruning. 
When  considerable  numbers  of  lice  assemble  at  these 
points,  they  cause  numerous  warty  excrescences  on  the  new- 
made  bark,  similar  to  the  parts  punctured  by  them  below 
ground.  On  summer-grafted  or  newly-budded  trees,  they 
are  a  great  nuisance.  They  soon  find  the  wounds  made  by 
inserting  the  grafts  or  buds,  which  they  enter,  and,  if  not 
prevented,  they  so  deplete  the  parts  that  the  stock  will  not 
unite  with  the  graft  or  bud.  If  a  heavy  mulch  of  straw  or 
hay  is  placed  close  around  the  trees  early  in  the  fall,  vast 
numbers  of  lice  will  come  together  on  the  tree  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground.  On  single  trees  so  treated,  we  have,  in 
the  month  of  October,  seen  as  many  as  half  a  pint  of  these 
insects.  It  has  been  suggested  that  advantage  might  be 
taken  of  their  coming  together  under  the  mulch  by  pour- 
ing boiling  water  over  them.  But  if  they  are  allowed  to 
remain  long  at  this  point,  they  will  kill  the  tree  by  severing 
the  connection  between  the  sap-vessels  in  the  top  and  roots. 
On  large  roots  the  injuries  done  by  root  lice  do  not,  at  first, 
become  apparent;   generally  not  until  after  the  lice  have 


EXTEMMINATING  NOXIOUS  INSECTS.  275 

left,  and  then  only  by  the  dead  roots  which  they  leave  be- 
hind. Small  roots,  when  punctured  by  them,  become  knot- 
ty and  greatly  deformed ;  but  large  roots,  at  the  collar  of 
the  tree,  may  be  sucked  dry  by  them  without  showing 
knots.  On  this  account,  the  real  cause  of  the  death  of  the 
tree  is  often  overlooked.  Indeed  we  have  known  persons 
possessing  much  entomological  information  inspect  trees 
killed  or  damaged  without  for  once  suspecting  that  root 
lice  had  any  agency  in  producing  the  results.  Probably 
there  are  but  few  persons  who  are  aware  to  what  extent  the 
Woolly  Root  Louse  injures  apple-trees,  or  how  readily  they 
discriminate  between  roots  of  trees  which  are  healthy  and 
those  that  are  wounded. 

The  Woolly  Aphis. — This  scourge  of  young  apple-orchards 
(Fig.  106)  is  sometimes  alluded  to  as  the  "American  Blight." 
But  entomologists  assure  us  that  it  is  a  species     Fig.ioe. 
of  Aphis,  or  Plant  Louse.     We  frequently  see  it         (j 
on  the  branches  of  young  trees  covered  with  tine         m 
white  downy  hairs.     In  some  instances,  they  are  ^o^Jiy  ^p. 
so  numerous  as  to  destroy  a  streak  of  the  bark  on    p^®  Lonse. 
a  limb  the  entire  length.    They  are  voracious  feeders.    They 
suck  out  the  juice  of  the  tender  branches  with  surprising  ra- 
pidity.   We  have  seen  branches  of  trees  with  a  dark-colored 
streak  for  several  feet  in  length,  where  these  depredators 
had  been  destroyed,  which  appeared  as  if  a  red-hot  iron 
had  been  drawn  along  the  bark. 

The  only  true  mode  of  extermination  is  to  apply  whale- 
oil  soap  with  a  swab,  or  strong  lime-wash,  rubbing  the  af- 
fected parts  until  every  vestige  of  the  depredators  is  wiped 
out.  Then  let  the  streak  of  injured  bark  be  covered  with 
liquid  grafting-wax,  or  pitch  and  tallow. 

Aphis,  or  Aphides. — We  frequently  see  untold  numbers 
of  the  aphis  (represented  by  Fig.  107,  on  the  following 
page),  which  is  about  the  usual  size  of  these  depredators, 


276 


THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 


Fig.  lOT. 


The  aphis  magnified. 


on  the  tender  branches,  twigs,  and  leaves  of  apple-trees  in 

the  spring  and  summer.     They  puncture  the  surface  and 

suck  out  the  sap,  and  almost  stop  the  growth  of 

the  entire  tree.     In  Fig.  108,  c  and  d  represent 

aphides     magnified.  ^ig  los 

The  aphis,    ^j^^g^     depredators 

are  astonishingly  prolific.  Pro- 
fessor Reaumur  showed,  dur- 
ing his  investigations,  accord- 
ing to  his  computation,  that 
one  single  aphis  may  produce,  in  five  generations,  if  none 
were  destroyed,  more  than  six  thousand  millions  of  descend- 
ants !  But,  allowing  that  two-thirds  of  them  are  destroyed 
before  they  have  attained  sufiicient  age  to  propagate  their 
young,  two  thousand  millions  are  left  to  prey  on  apple-trees, 
leaves,  and  tender  spray.  They  frequently  cover  the  entire 
surface  of  leaves  and  twigs,  and  they  injure 
the  leaves  to  such  an  extent  that  they  cease  to 
grow,  and  the  remaining  leaves  roll  up  and  die. 
Other  insects,  and  ants  in  particular,  destroy 
large  numbers  of  the  aphis.  When  they  are 
numerous,  let  the  branches  be  sprinkled,  b}^ 
means  of  a  syringe  (Fig.  109),  with  strong 
soap-suds  several  times  a  day,  in  cloudy  weath- 
er. In  some  instances,  let  the  branches  be 
washed  and  rubbed  with  a  cloth.  Leaves 
should  not  be  sprinkled  when  the  sun  shines, 
in  a  hot  day,  as  they  are  liable  to  be  scalded 
by  the  liquid  and  heat  of  the  sun.  Early  in 
the  evening  is  the  better  time  to  apply  the 
suds.  If  trees  are  small,  many  of  the  branches 
may  be  bent  down  and  held  for  a  moment  in 
a  tub  of  strong  suds,  which  will  effectually  de- 
Ahandpyringe.    strov  the  lice. 


Fig.  109, 


EXTERMINATING  NOXIOUJS  INSECTS. 


277 


Fig.  110. 


Fig.  110  represents 
an  aquarius,  or  hand 
water-engine,  invent- 
ed by  W.  B.  Doug- 
las, of  Middletown, 
Connecticut,  which 
we  know,  from  ex- 
perience, to  be  an 
excellent  device  for 
sprinkling  trees  with 
soap-suds,  or  for  wa- 
tering flower  -beds, 
and  even  for  wash- 
ing the  outside  of 
windows.  A  small 
lad  can  sprinkle 
soap-suds  all  over  a 
tree  twenty  feet  high 
with  such  an  aqua- 
rius.  The  illustra- 
tion scarcely  requires 
an  explanation.  The 
nose  is  provided  with  a  rose-spout,  full  of  numerous  small 
holes,  for  the  purpose  of  scattering  all  the  liquid  into  spray. 
Such  an  aquarius  may  be  obtained  at  most  hardware  stores. 
Apple-tree  Worms. — One  of  the  most  difficult  apple-tree 
worms  to  combat  is  the  small  green  sixteen-legged  larva, 
nearly  half  an  inch  long,  and  with  a  broad,  dark-brown 
stripe  on  each  side,  extending  the  whole  length  of  its 
back.  These  depredators  are  found  to  do  considerable 
damage  to  the  apple-tree.  They  are  said  to  belong  to  a 
new  and  hitherto  undescribed  species.  The  mode  in  which 
this  larva  operates  on  the  apple-tree  is  by  tying  together 
the  leaves  with  silken  cords,  forming  a  mass  of  considera- 


Douglas's  aquarius. 


278  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

ble  size,  inside  of  which  it  lives  gregariously,  skeletonizing 
the  leaves  that  it  -has  thus  appropriated,  and  filling  them 
with  its  gunpowder-like  excrement.  It  was  so  abundant 
in  1868,  in  some  orchards,  as  nearly  to  strip  many  trees, 
especially  in  young  orchards  that  were  in  an  unthrifty  con- 
dition. It  is  quite  different  from  the  Rascal  Leaf-crum- 
pler  {Phycita  nebulo),  which  lives  all  the  time  in  a  little 
black  horn-like  case;  whereas  this  larva  carries  no  house 
on  its  back.  Moreover,  the  Leaf-crumpler  is  solitary  in  its 
habits ;  whereas  this  species  live  in  communities  of  several 
dozen  during  their  entire  larval  life.  As  to  the  moths  pro- 
duced from  these  two  larvae,  they  are  as  different  from 
each  other  as  a  goat  is  from  a  sheep. 

The  only  reliable  way  to  prevent  the  depredations  of 
such  pests  is  to  trap  the  moths  in  bottles,  to  catch  the  lar- 
vae and  kill  them,  and  tear  down  their  nests  before  they  are 
half  built.  Birds  will  destroy  a  great  many  when  the  worms 
are  very  small. 

The  Army-worm  {Noctua  unipuncta). — This  noxious  in- 
sect is  hatched  from  an  egg  deposited  by  the  parent  moth 
Fig. 111.  (Fig.  Ill)  at  the  base  of  perennial 

^^^^^^£>^^^^^  grass-stalks.     The  eggs  hatch,  in  dif- 
^^^/Utt^K^^m  ^^^^^^  localities,  from  May  until  the 
^^^^Hm^^    middle  of  July.    Some  entomologists 
4!^^  nf^H^       affirm  that   these  moths   seek  low 
"  meadows  to  deposit  their  eggs.    The 

Army-worm  Moth.  ^^^g  ^^,^^  consequently  deposited  over 
a  greater  area  of  territory;  and  if  the  succeeding  year 
prove  wet,  and  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  worms,  we 
shall  have  the  abnormal  condition  of  their  appearing  on 
our  higher  and  dryer  lands,  and  of  their  marching  from 
one  field  to  another.  For  just  as  soon  as  the  green  grass 
is  devoured  in  any  particular  field  in  which  they  may 
have  hatched,  these   worms   are  forced,  both  from   hun- 


EXTERMINATING  NOXIOUS  INSECTS.  2*79 

ger  and  from  their  sensibility  to  the  sun's  rays,  to  leave 
the  denuded  field.  When  they  have  become  nearly  full- 
grown,  and  have  stripped  bare  the  fields  in  which  they 
were  born,  and  commence  to  march,  they  necessarily  at- 
tract attention;  for  they  are  then  exceedingly  voracious, 
devouring  more  during  the  last  three  or  four  days  of  their 
worm-life  than  they  had  done  during  the  whole  of  their 
previous  existence.  As  soon  as  they  are  full-grown,  they 
burrow  into  the  earth,  and,  of  course,  are  never  seen  again 
as  worms. 

Their  increase  and  decrease  is  dependent  on  even  more 
potent  influences  than  those  of  a  climatic  nature.  The 
worms  are  attacked  by  at  least  eight  different  parasites; 
and  when  we  understand  how  persistent  these  last  are,  and 
how  thoroughly  they  accomplish  their  murderous  work,  we 
cease  to  wonder  at  the  almost  total  annihilation  of  the 
Army -worm  the  year  following  its  appearance  in  such 
hosts.  In  the  words  of  the  late  J.  Kirkpatrick,  "Their 
undue  increase  but  combines  the  assaults  of  their  enemies, 
and  thus  brings  them  within  bounds  again."  We  must 
also  bear  in  mind  that,  besides  these  parasitic  insects,  there 
are  some  cannibal  insects,  such  as  the  Fiery  Ground-beetle, 
which  come  in  for  their  share  of  this  dainty  food ;  while 
the  worms,  when  hard  pushed,  will  even  devour  each  other. 
It  is  stated  that  Army-worm  Moths  do  sometimes  lay  their 
eggs  before  harvest  upon  growing  grain,  sufficiently  high 
from  the  ground  for  the  egg  to  be  carried  off  with  the 
straw,  which  accounts  for  several  well  -  authenticated  in- 
stances of  the  Army-worm  starting  from  stack-yards. 

The  Army-worm  larva  varies  but  little  in  appearance 
from  the  time  it  hatches  to  the  time  when  it  is  full-grown. 
Some  specimens  are  a  shade  darker  than  others,  but  the 
markings  are  generally  uniform,  as  shown  by  Fig.  112,  on 
the  following  page,  which  represents  an  Army-worm  of  full 


280  THE  APPLE  CULTURI8T. 

Fig,  112.  ,,,,!     size.     The  general  color 

is  dingy  black,  and  it  is 
striped  longitudinally  as 
follows:  On  the  back  a 
broad  dusky  stripe ;  then 
a  narrow  black  line ;  then 
.     .  a  narrow  white  line ;  then 

An  Army-worm.  ^  ^  ' 

a  yellowish  stripe ;  then  a 
narrow  sub-obsolete  white  line ;  then  a  dusky  stripe ;  then 
a  narrow  white  line;  then  a  yellowish  stripe;  then  a  sub- 
obsolete  white  line ;  belly  obscure  green. 

rish-brine  for  Exterminating  the  Aphides.  —  Brine  and 
salt  must  be  used  around  fruit-trees  with  extreme  caution, 
lest  the  trees  be  killed  before  the  insects  are  dispatched. 
We  have  frequently  read  of  the  successful  use  of  weak  fish- 
brine,  sprinkled  among  the  leaves  and  tender  branches ;  but 
we  have  never  used  brine  in  any  form,  as  we  dare  not,  even 
when  it  is  much  diluted.  Salt  and  brine  will  often  kill 
trees  and  plants  in  a  few  days,  without  affecting  a  single  in- 
sect in  the  least.  It  is  a  mistaken  idea  that  salt  spread 
around  fruit-trees  will  repel  or  exterminate  insects  or 
worms  of  any  kind,  unless  it  is  applied  in  sufficient  quan- 
tities to  destroy  the  last  vestige  of  vegetation.  Brine  will 
doubtless  destroy  the  aphides  when  sprinkled  on  the  leaves 
of  trees.  But  it  must  be  much  diluted,  or  the  saline  mate 
rial  will  kill  every  leaf.  Whenever  brine  is  employed,  the 
twigs  and  leaves  should  be  sprinkled  with  water  soon  after 
the  brine  is  applied.  Brine  or  soap  will  perform  its  work 
on  the  tender  lice  in  a  few  minutes,  when  fresh  water  should 
wash  the  leaves  clean. 

The  Sulphur  Remedy. — Some  pomologists,  both  in  Amer- 
ica and  in  the  Old  World,  have  written  favorable  accounts 
of  the  use  of  sulphur  on  apple-trees  for  exterminating  the 
aphides  and  some  other  depredators.     The  sulphur  can  be 


EXTEBMINATINO  NOXIOUS  INSECTS. 


281 


readily  applied  to  small  trees,  by  means  of  such  a  bellows 
as  is  employed  to  spread  sulphur  on  grape-vines  (Fig.  113). 
Such  bellows  may  be  obtained  at  most  hardware  stores. 


A  sulphur-bellows. 

The  Red-humped  prominent  Caterpillar. — This  formida- 
ble depredator — denominated  scientifically  Notodonta  con- 
cinna — is  rarely  met  with  in  many  States ;  these  caterpillars 
seem  to  have  a  preference  for  rose-bushes  and  pear-trees 
When  full-grown,  they  are  about  one  and  a  quarter  to  two 
inches  long,  having  no  sting,  no  irritating  hairs  or  prickles, 
such  as  are  found  on  a  few  of  our  rarer  worms :   and 


Fig.  114. 


they  will  not  even  bite, 
however  much  we  may 
irritate  and  torment 
them.  Fig.  114  repre- 
sents the  full  -  grown 
Red-humped  larva  feed- 
ing   on    the    edge    of    a  The  Eed-humped  Caterpillar. 

leaf.     Fig.  115  represents  the  parent  insect,  or  moth,  with 

wings.  Wherever  this  in- 
vader appears,  the  worms 
are  extensively  found,  be- 
cause the  mother-moth  de- 
posits a  veiy  large  number 
of  eggs  upon  a  single  leaf. 
As  these  larvae  are  grega- 
rious throughout  their  en- 

Pareut  moth  of  Red-limnped  Caterpillar,  tire    existence,    and    do    not 


Fig.  115. 


282 


THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 


scatter  over  the  whole  tree,  as  do  many  others  that  occur  on 
our  fruit-trees — some  of  which  wander  off  from  the  very  ear- 
liest stage  in  their  larval  life,  and  others,  as  for  example  the 
common  Tent-caterpillar,  only  towards  the  latter  part  of  their 
existence  in  the  larval  state — they  can  always  be  easily  de- 
stroyed. The  larva  of  the  Red-humped  will  be  readily  rec- 
ognized by  its  great  beauty.  The  true  way  to  exterminate 
these  foes  is  to  trap  the  moth  in  the  bottles,  as  recommend- 
ed (Fig.  51,  p.  IIV),  crush  the  chrysalis  whenever  it  may 
be  found,  and  catch  the  full-grown  larvae  and  kill  them. 


TALMAN'8  SWEETING. 

Synonyms. — Tallman's  Sweeting, Tolman's  Sweeting,  and  Brown's  Golden  Sweet. 
When  fully  ripe,  those  specimens  which  grow  in  the  sunlight  have  a  soft  blush  on 
one  side ;  aad,  generally,  a  line  runs  from  the  stem  to  the  calyx,  which  is  set  in  a 
small  basin  slightly  depressed.  The  flesh  is  quite  white,  rather  firm,  fine-grained, 
with  a  rich,  sweet  flavor.  This  is  one  of  the  very  best  winter  sweet  apples.  The 
tree  is  a  hardy,  upright,  and  spreading  grower.  The  apples  are  seldom  formed 
like  the  engraving,  with  a  swell  on  one  side  of  the  cavity.  When  the  ground  is 
rich,  the  apples  grow  much  larger  than  represented  by  the  cut.  The  Talman's 
Sweeting  is  a  variety  that  may  be  added  to  eve;y  list  of  choice  apples  in  every 
State  of  the  Union,  wherever  apples  can  be  raised  with  satisfactory  success.  This 
variety  is  a  universal  favorite  with  all  people,  and  ail  kinds  of  domestic  animals. 


GATHERING  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  APPLES.         283 


CHAPTER  IX. 

GATHERING    AND    MANAGEMENT    OP    APPLES- 

With  ladders,  baskets,  and  the  plucker's  suit, 
Pluck  the  fair  King,  fill  baskets  to  the  brim: 

Relieve  the  bending  boughs  of  luscious  fruit : 
Handle  with  care,  and  lay  them  in  the  bin.— Edwards. 

Apples,  as  well  as  apple-trees,  possess  vitality.  There 
is  life  within  the  pulp,  and  life  in  the  seeds.  Let  an  ap- 
ple be  deprived  of  its  vitality,  and  the  once  delicious  pulp 
will  become  tasteless  and  unfit  for  eating.  After  an  ap- 
ple has  been  frozen  and  thawed,  its  life  is  gone,  and  with 
it  every  peculiarity  of  flavor  and  nutriment  that  made  it 
pleasant  to  the  taste,  and  a  valuable  and  important  arti- 
cle of  food.  It  is  the  life  of  the  apple,  therefore,  that  we 
aim  to  preserve  and  to  prolong  through  the  changes  of 
the  weather  that  affect  the  fruit.  Hence  all  the  manage- 
ment of  apples  should  be  predicated  on  the  assumption 
that  careful  handling  and  judicious  management  tend  to 
prolong  the  life  of  the  fruit.  As  violent  treatment  tends 
to  destroy  all  animal  Hfe,  so  bruising  and  rough  handling 
will  hasten  the  decay  of  fruit.  There  is  no  life  in  a  rot- 
ten apple,  except  within  the  seed. 

These  suggestions  will  enable  us  to  understand  something 
of  the  fundamental  requirements  for  the  successful  preser- 
vation of  choice  apples  during  the  unfavorable  periods  of 
alternate  heat  and  cold.  Hence,  to  maintain  that  condition 
of  soundness  which  is  essential  to  the  value  and  excellence 
of  apples,  every  specimen  must  be  taken  from  the  tree  by 
the  hand,  and  laid  carefully  in  a  basket.     Winter  apples 


284  THE  APPLE  CULTUPIIST. 

and  pears  should  be  handled  with  as  much  care  as  one  han- 
dles eggs.  Apples  may — and  frequently  do — fall  to  the 
ground  without  being  injured.  But  a  person  has  no  as- 
surance, if  an  apple  falls  to  the  ground,  that  it  will  not  be 
so  badly  bruised  as  to  hasten  its  decay  in  a  few  weeks. 
For  this  reason,  hand-picking  should  be  practised  in  pref- 
erence to  any  other  mode  of  gathering  them,  if  to  be  kept 
for  spring  and  summer  use.  When  picked,  lay  those  de- 
signed for  long  keeping  carefully  in  the  basket  with  the 
hand,  instead  of  throwing  them  in.  Winter  apples  should 
not  be  poured  from  one  basket  to  another,  any  sooner  than 
one  would  handle  eggs  by  the  rough  process  of  pouring. 
Winter  apples  should  never  be  handled  in  full  bags,  as  any 
kind  of  fruit  will  be  bruised  more  in  a  full  bag  than  in  any 
other  receptacle.  Transporting  apples,  even  from  the  or- 
chard to  the  fruit-room,  in  a  common  wagon,  either  before 
or  after  barrelling,  is  injurious ;  they  should  be  moved  on 
springs  or  on  sleds.  The  least  abrasion  of  the  skin,  or 
crushing  of  cells  of  the  pulp  containing  the  juice,  induces 
fermentation  and  decomposition,  and  the  consequent  decay 
of  the  whole  mass.  Most  orchardists  who  have  many  win- 
ter apples  usually  sustain  heavy  losses  by  the  premature 
decay  of  the  fruit,  simplj^  because  they  do  not  manage  right 
with  it.  Fall  apples  may  often  be  kept  till  winter,  if  plucked 
by  hand  and  afterwards  managed  with  proper  care.  The 
conditions  for  the  largest  and  best  preservation  of  apples 
and  potatoes  differ  in  several  respects,  and  in  one  particu- 
lar those  conditions  are  in  direct  contrast.  Apples  require 
to  be  kept  as  dry  as  possible ;  potatoes  to  be  kept  moist. 

When  to  pluck  Winter  Apples.  —  There  is  a  variety  of 
opinions  as  to  the  best  period  for  gathering  winter  apples. 
Still  there  are  certain  facts  as  to  time  in  which  all  do  agree, 
one  of  which  is,  that  all  apples  should  be  gathered  before 
the  weather  is  cold  enough  to  freeze  the  ground.     Apples, 


OATHEBING  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  APPLES.         285 

while  on  the  trees,  will  not  be  injured  by  a  light  white 
frost.  Winter  apples  will  not  freeze  until  the  atmospheric 
temperature  is  from  five  to  ten  degrees  below  the  freezing- 
point  of  water ;  and  it  is  beneficial  to  keep  them  as  cool  as 
possible,  even  down  to  thirty  degrees.  Some  persons  have 
affirmed  that  apples  inclosed  in  a  water-tight  cask  may  be 
left  in  a  cold  loft  or  garret  all  winter,  without  further  care, 
and  they  will  be  sound  in  the  spring,  and  perfectly  fresh. 
But  we  have  never  dared  to  repose  sufficient  confidence  in 
the  doubtful  experiment  to  try  it.  No  matter  where  apples 
may  be — if  in  a  complete  vacuum — if  they  freeze  through, 
the  frost  will  injure  them.  Another  consideration  of  im- 
portance, touching  the  proper  period  for  gathering  winter 
apples,  is  this :  the  fruit  should  be  plucked  before  a  large 
proportion  of  it  is  blown  off  by  the  wind.  If  apples  have 
ceased  to  groAV,  and  are  beginning  to  fall,  the  sooner  they 
are  plucked,  the  longer  they  will  keep  good.  Some  varie- 
ties should  be  gathered  several  weeks  before  the  apples  on 
the  adjoining  trees  have  attained  their  growth.  Hence  no 
person  can  indicate,  on  paper,  the  exact  period  when  ap- 
ples should  be  gathered.  Winter  apples  can  be  gathered 
too  early ;  and  there  is  danger  of  allowing  them  to  remain 
on  the  trees  too  late  in  the  growing  season.  When  apples 
are  ripe  and  the  trees  have  ceased  to  grow,  the  fruit  should 
be  gathered  at  once,  no  matter  what  may  be  the  day  of 
the  month.  Winter  apples  should  never  be  plucked  when 
the  fruit  is  wet,  nor  when  it  is  chilled  and  almost  frozen. 
Should  an  unexpectedly  cold  time  occur,  it  will  be  better  to 
let  the  fruit  remain  on  the  trees,  than  to  shake  it  to  the 
ground,  unless  it  can  be  shaken  before  the  apples  are  chilled. 
Every  orchardist  should  make  himself  familiar  with  the 
qualities  and  characteristics  of  different  varieties  of  winter 
apples,  and  pluck  those  first  that  ripen  first.  A  little  ob- 
servation on  this  point  will  enable  one  to  determine  with 


286  THE  APPLE  CULTUMIST. 

satisfactory  certainty  when  is  the  proper  time  to  gather  dif- 
ferent varieties. 

Assorting  Apples. — It  is  a  common  practice  with  many 
persons  to  mingle  numerous  varieties  together.  If  such 
apples  are  alike  in  their  season,  there  may  be  no  objection 
to  such  management.  But  fall  varieties  and  winter  varie- 
ties should  always  be  kept  separate,  so  that  a  hundred  bush- 
els may  not  have  to  be  overhauled  for  the  purpose  of  pick- 
ing out  a  few  bushels  which  will  soon  decay  and  be  lost, 
and  hasten  the  decay  of  the  sound  apples,  if  they  are  not 
separated.  Fall  Pippins,  for  example,  should  be  gathered 
before  Spitzenbergs  and  the  Baldwins,  and  should  always 
be  stored  by  themselves.  Talman's  Sweetings  and  other 
sweet  apples  should  have  each  separate  barrels  or  bins. 
Windfall  should  all  be  gathered  before  the  main  crop  is 
plucked,  and  be  stored  in  some  convenient  place  for  imme- 
diate use.  A  vast  amount  of  economy  may  be  exei'cised  in 
the  consumption  of  apples,  by  keeping  .the  varieties  and 
those  of  different  qualities  and  conditions  quite  separate, 
when  the  fruit  is  gathered.  When  perishable  varieties  and 
windfall  are  mingled  with  fair  winter  fruit,  servants,  and 
sometimes  the  mistress  of  the  family,  will  always  choose  the 
fairer  fruit  first ;  whereas,  if  the  windfall,  the  bruised,  and 
the  perishable  were  selected,  they  would  have  better  fruit 
for  pies,  dumphngs,  or  for  any  other  culinary  purpose.  In 
case  one  has  a  larger  quantity  of  windfall  and  early  fruit 
than  can  be  readily  disposed  of  before  it  decays,  if  it  is 
not  mingled  with  the  best  varieties,  it  can  be  fed  to  do- 
mestic animals,  and  thus  be  saved  from  immediate  decay 
and  loss. 

Injury  to  Trees  when  gathering  the  Fruit.  —  We  have 
alluded  to  this  subject  on  a  preceding  page.  The  greatest 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  damage  the  trees  when  harvest- 
ing the  fruit.     The  eye  of  the  owner  will  be  useful  while 


OATHEBINO  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  APPLES.         287 

this  operation  is  being  performed.  Beginners  and  heedless 
helpers  should  be  taught  how  to  pluck  an  apple  or  pear 
when  the  stem  separates  with  difficulty,  so  as  not  to  break 
off  the  fruit-spurs  or  injure  the  buds,  which  are  to  produce 
the  next  year's  crop.  (See  Fruit-spurs,  p.  330.)  There 
is  a  proper  place  for  every  stem  to  separate  from  the  spur. 
A  straight  pull  will  often  remove  a  piece  of  the  twig  several 
inches  in  length.  When  fruit  is  shaken  off,  the  apples  or 
pears  often  take  long  pieces  of  wood  with  them.  Of  course 
these  have  to  be  separated  from  the  fruit ;  and  it  is  far  bet- 
ter to  take  a  little  pains  and  leave  the  wood  on  the  tree. 
As  the  apple  is  about  to  be  plucked,  apply  the  thumb-nail 
to  the  stem  at  the  proper  place  for  separation,  and  break 
the  stem  across  the  nail.  A  great  deal  of  damage  is  done 
to  fruit-trees  every  year  at  the  time  of  gathering  the  fruit. 
Large  branches  are  trodden  on  and  barked,  small  ones  are 
broken,  and,  in  the  violent  shaking  of  the  trees,  fruit-spurs 
are  broken  off.  Selling  fruit  on  the  trees  generally  results 
in  great  injury  to  the  orchard ;  for  the  buyer,  in  most  cases, 
does  not  care  how  much  damage  is  done  to  the  trees,  as  his 
object  is  to  gather  the  fruit  in  the  most  expeditious  way. 
There  is  generally  more  damage  done  in  gathering  unripe 
fruit  than  in  taking  off  that  which  is  fully  matured ;  for  the 
former  adheres  so  firmly  to  the  spurs  that  some  force  is  re- 
quired to  remove  it. 

Convenient  Fruit-pluckers. — The  illustration  on  the  fol- 
lowing page  (Fig.  116)  represents  a  convenient  fruit-pluck- 
er,  which  is  useful  for  plucking  both  pears  and  apples.  For 
plucking  valuable  pears,  it  is  almost  indispensable,  as  it  en- 
ables one  to  pluck  all  those  good  pears  or  apples  on  the 
ends  of  long  limbs  which  could  not  be  gathered  except  by 
shaking  the  trees.  A  plucker  of  this  style  may  be  made  in 
a  few  minutes  at  a  trifling  expense.  Bend  a  piece  of  wire 
in  the  form  of  the  figure,  as  shown  at  a.     No.  11  wire  is 


288  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

Fig.  116.  about    the     right 

size.  A  piece  of 
wire  about  thirty- 
two  inches  long 
will  be  required. 
Acheapfruit-piucker.  ^^^ert    the    ends 

in  one  end  of  a 
broom-handle,  and  then  sew  a  little  sack  to  the  wire,  large 
enough  to  hold  about  eight  apples.  The  wire  should  be 
bent  large  enough  to  receive  a  man's  hand  into  the  sack. 
A  blacksmith  will  fit  one  to  a  handle  in  four  or  five  minutes ; 
and,  if  a  man  has  a  pair  of  pliers,  he  can  bend  the  wire  to 
suit  himself,  after  heating  it  in  the  stove.  With  one  of  this 
kind  of  fruit-pluckers,  having  a  light  handle  eight  or  ten 
feet  long,  a  man  can  pluck  fruit  rapidly  while  standing  on 
the  ground.  When  a  person  is  in  the  tree-top,  he  should 
be  provided  with  two  or  more  pluckers,  having  handles  of 
different  lengths.  Such  fruit-pluckers  are  designed  only  for 
gathering  such  fruit  as  can  not  be  reached  with  the  hands. 
It  will  be  understood  that  the  fruit  is  pulled  off  by  the  nar- 
row loop-end  of  the  plucker. 

Drying  and  seasoning  Winter  Apples. — As  soon  as  the 
apples  are  plucked,  they  should  be  laid  carefully  in  a  cool, 
airy,  and  dry  place,  until  there  is  danger  that  they  will  be 
injured  by  cold  weather.  A  close  apartment,  which  can  not 
be  ventilated  sufiiciently  to  carry  away  all  moisture  from 
the  fruit,  is  an  improper  place  for  keeping  winter  apples 
during  that  period  of  autumn  just  before  cold  and  freezing 
weather.  If  an  apartment  is  so  close  that  moisture  will 
condense  on  the  window-glass,  it  is  a  certain  indication  that 
the  ventilation  is  quite  insufiicient  for  the  requirements  of 
the  fruit.  The  best  place  for  seasoning  winter  apples  be- 
fore cold  weather  is  on  a  floor  a  few  feet  above  the  ground, 
and  beneath  a  good  roof,,  to  carry  off  the  storms,  and  with 


Fig.  117. 


OATHEBING  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  APPLES.         289 

openings  at  the  sides  sufficient  to  admit  a  cool  current  of 
air  both  night  and  day.  A  building  prepared  like  a  tobac- 
co-drying-house would  be  an  excellent  place  for  seasoning 
wnnter  apples.  Most  cellars  are  quite  too  close  and  damp 
for  winter  apples  until  after  the  weather  has  become  cold 
and  freezing. 

Apple-shelves  in  Dry  Cellars.— When  apples  are  kept  in 
a  cellar,  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  ways  to  keep  apples  is 
to  make  rows  of  shelves,  or  open  bins,  similar  to  Fig.  117, 
one  above  the 
other,  with  al- 
leys between  the 
rows,  say  three 
feet  apart.  Studs 
should  be  set  up, 
to  which  nar- 
row strips,  three 
inches  wide  by 

one    inch    thick.  Convenient  apple-shelves. 

should  be  nailed.  The  lower  shelf,  or  bin,  should  be  at  least 
six  inches  above  the  bottom  of  the  cellar.  The  next  about 
twenty  inches  above  the  first;  and  so  on  up  to  the  joists. 
A  person  can  walk  on  every  side  of  such  fruit-shelves,  and 
can  easily  reach  to  the  middle  from  either  side.  If  rats  and 
mice  should  gain  access  to  such  an  apartment,  they  would 
find  no  refuge  beneath  bins  beyond  the  reach  of  a  cat.  But 
a  fruit-apartment  should  be  made  so  tight  that  rats  and 
mice  can  not  enter,  except  through  a  door  or  windows.  If 
they  can  avail  themselves  of  no  refuge,  they  will  make  a 
short  stay  in  a  cellar  that  is  walled  up  so  firmly  that  they 
can  not  find  a  hiding-place.  Apples  may  be  placed  on 
each  shelf,  until  the  fruit  is  a  foot  or  more  deep.  But 
it  should  be  avoided,  if  possible,  as  it  is  in  most  cases  un- 
safe ;  and  with  some  varieties  having  thin,  delicate  skins, 

13 


290  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

most  certainly  so,  as  the  fruit  heats  and  specks  in  a  sliort 
time.  Give  plenty  of  air,  and  all  the  circulation  possible. 
An  apple  may  be  bruised  in  several  places,  and  if  it  be 
kept  in  a  close  place  it  will  begin  to  decay.  On  the  con- 
trary, if  it  is  in  an  airy  place,  the  bruises  will  soon  begin 
to  dry,  so  that  a  few  dry  days  will  dry  and  harden  the 
bruises,  and  will  keep  the  moisture  from  being  absorbed 
from  the  wound.  Windows  at  opposite  sides  or  ends  of 
such  a  fruit-cellar  should  be  made,  so  that  there  may  be  no 
lack  of  ventilation  at  any  season.  There  will  be  many  days 
during  the  winter  months  when  the  windows  should  be 
thrown  wide  open  day  and  night. 

Stove  in  a  Fruit-cellar. — We  have  assumed  that  the  fruit- 
cellar,  just  alluded  to,  is  beneath  a  dwelling-house,  in  which 
case  it  will  be  easy  to  provide  a  small  stoye  for  the  fruit- 
room,  to  keep  out  the  cold  during  severe  weather.  This 
practice  will  be  found  far  more  satisfactory  than  to  attempt 
to  bank  up  the  outside  walls,  and  close  every  door  and  win- 
dow. A  little  fire  in  a  small  stove,  placed  near  the  outside 
door,  will  keep  the  temperature  a  few  degrees  above  the  freez- 
ing point,  when  without  fire  it  would  be  almost  impossible 
to  prevent  the  fruit  from  freezing.  The  pijDC  from  a  small 
stove  could  pass  up  through  the  floor,  and  connect  with  the 
pipe  or  chimney  in  the  first  story.  A  far  better  way  would 
be  to  let  the  chimney  extend  entirely  to  the  bottom  of  the 
cellar.  In  cold  and  dreary  localities,  no  one  should  attempt 
to  keep  fruit  and  vegetables  in  a  cellar  without  a  stove,  to 
temper  the  atmosphere  in  very  cold  weather.  In  order  to 
keep  well,  apples  must  not  be  exposed  to  severe  cold,  nor 
be  kept  too  warm,  neither  be  confined  in  a  close  apartment. 

After  cold  weather  is  passed,  winter  apples  will  keep 
better  in  barrels,  as  many  varieties,  after  warm  weather  has 
come  on  in  the  spring,  will  wilt  up,  become  corky,  and  lose 
most  of  their  flavor,  making  them  comparatively  worthless. 


QATHERINO  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  APPLES.         291 

In  a  dry  and  well-ventilated  cellar  the  air  is  constantly  re- 
newed and  kept  dry^  thus  carrying  the  damp  vapor  from  the 
fruit  as  regularly  as  it  escapes,  by  sweating  or  otherwise. 

Storing  Winter  Apples  in  Barrels. — When  apples  are  to 
be  kept  during  the  winter  in  barrels,  after  having  been 
carefully  hand-picked  in  baskets,  the  fruit  should  be  laid 
on  a  floor,  by  hand,  without  pouring  from  the  baskets,  until 
they  are  twelve  or  eighteen  inches  deep,  where  the  fruit 
should  be  left  to  dry  and  season  three  weeks,  after  which 
the  apples  should  be  carefully  packed  in  clean  dry  barrels. 
The  plan  of  drying  and  seasoning  in  the  air  before  barrel- 
ling, prevailed  generally  some  years  ago,  although  nowa- 
days it  is  mostly  discontinued,  and  thought  useless,  as  the 
process  requires  the  exercise  of  too  much  care  to  comport 
with  the  fast  notions  of  V  Young  America." 

The  following  is  a  practice  a  pomologist  recommends: 
Having  picked  your  apples  nicely,  put  them  in  the  barrels 
without  a  leaf  or  straw  or  a  spire  of  grass — head  them  up, 
and  set  them  in  a  clean  out-building  where  there  is  no  of- 
fensive odor,  and  let  them  stand  till  the  ground  begins  to 
freeze  a  little ;  then,  in  a  clean  grassy  place,  dig  a  ditch, 
square  and  straight,  eighteen  inches  deep,  and  just  wide 
enough  to  receive  the  barrels.  In  the  bottom  lay  two 
fence  rails  close  in  the  corners — pieces  of  rails  will  do. 
Now  roll  your  barrels  in,  and  they  will  be  about  six  to 
eight  inches  above  the  surface  lying  end  to  end.  Cover 
them  with  the  dirt ;  but  do  not  lay  the  sods  on  the  barrels 
with  the  grass  next  to  them.  The  covering  may  be  ten 
inches  thick  or  more ;  but  you  need  not  fear  freezing,  it 
won't  hurt  the  apples.  If  it  is  a  clay  soil,  you  had  better 
make  your  ditch  on  a  slope,  so  that  the  water  will  run  out 
at  the  lower  end.  When  you  want  apples,  dig  out  a  barrel 
and  put  it  in  the  cellar ;  and  I  warrant  you  will  say  the  first 
you  eat  is  best,  for  in  ten  days'  time  the  exquisite  aroma 


292  THE  APPLE  GULTUBIST. 

and  taste  will  have  departed,  and  the  apples  will  be  "  only 
common  apples."  Many  apple  cultivators  approve  of  the 
foregoing  practice;  but  we  have  heard  of  so  many  apples 
failing  to  keep  satisfactorily,  that  we  do  not  indorse  it  as 
worthy  of  adoption. 

Many  people  lay  their  winter  apples  carefully  in  barrels, 
keep  them  in  a  cool  place  until  cold  weather,  then  remove 
the  barrels  of  fruit  to  a  good  cellar.  To  secure  the  apples 
against  retaining  moisture  on  the  skin,  let  the  opening  of 
the  windows,  in  dry  states  of  the  atmosphere  only,  be  par- 
ticularly attended  to,  as  the  circulation  of  dry  air  will  soon 
absorb  and  carry  off  the  natural  moisture,  while  moist  air 
will  only  add  to  it. 

Removing  the  Rubbish. — In  many  orchards,  the  ground 
beneath  most  trees  is  strewn  with  pieces  of  brush,  chunks 
of  wood,  and  numerous  small  stones.  To  prevent  damage 
to  almost  every  apple  that  may  fall  to  the  ground,  if  it 
happens  to  strike  a  stone  or  stick,  let  all  sticks,  stones,  and 
brush  be  removed  from  beneath  every  tree,  so  that  the  fruit 
will  not  be  bruised  when  it  falls  from  the  trees.  Stones 
and  sticks  should  never  be  allowed  to  remain  about  fruit- 
trees  ;  but  the  surface  should  be  made  smooth,  and  if  it  is 
covered  with  a  coat  of  short  grass,  many  good  winter  ap- 
ples that  are  blown  off  the  trees  will  not  be  injured  when 
they  fall.  The  fruit  that  falls  first  ought  always  to  be 
kept  by  itself,  so  that  it  may  be  used  late  in  the  fail,  or 
early  in  the  winter,  as  such  fruit  will  not  usually  keep  so 
well  as  that  which  is  plucked  by  hand.  In  some  instances, 
straw  is  spread  round  about  the  tree  for  the  fruit  to  fall 
on  as  the  tree  is  shaken.  The  only  objection  to  this  prac- 
tice is  that,  when  fruit  is  shaken  off  the  trees,  much  of  it 
will  be  badly  bruised  by  striking  the  branches  of  the  tree- 
top,  and  also  by  falling  on  other  specimens  that  may  be  on 
the  gi*ound. 


OATHERINQ  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  APPLES, 


293 


Fig.  118. 


Carrying  Winter  Apples  in  Baskets.^ — When  apples  are 
gathered  within  two  or  three  minutes'  walk  of  the  fruit- 
room,  the  most  convenient  manner  of  conveying  the  fruit 
is  to  let  two  men  carry  two  large  basketfuls,  as  represent- 
ed by  the  accompanying  engraving  (Fig.  118),  as  they  will 
be  able  to  carry 
two  large  bas- 
kets of  apples 
in  this  manner 
more  easily  than 
to  lift  them  to 
their  shoulders. 
It  will  be  under- 
stood by  the  en- 
graving .that  a 
spar  of  timber, 
like  a  strong 
pitchfork  handle, 
is  put  through 
the  handles  of 
each  basket.  If 
the  way  is  smooth,  one  person  may  take  two  large  baskets 
on  a  wheelbarrow.  Still  another  good  way  to  convey  ap- 
ples to  the  fruit-room  is  to  set  a  dozen  baskets  on  a  large 
stone-boat.  Winter  apples  should  not  be  poured  from  one 
basket  into  another,  nor  be  dumped  into  a  wagon-box  and 
jolted  over  a  rough  way,  as  all  such  rough  handling  will 
bruise  them  more  or  less,  and  thus  hasten  their  decay. 

Plucking  from  Tall  Trees. — In  many  instances,  apple-trees 
grow  so  tall  that  the  limbs  are  not  sufficiently  strong  to 
bear  a  small  boy  in  the  tree,  nor  on  a  ladder  resting  against 
it,  unless  the  top  is  supported  with  guy-ropes.  An  orchard- 
ladder  should  have  its  lower  ends  shod  with  iron,  in  the 
form  of  a  sharp  wedge,  to  enter  the  ground  readily,  and  to 


Carrying  two  large  baskets  of  winter  apples. 


294 


THE  APPLE  CULTURTST. 


hold  the  lower  end  when 
putting  it  up  and  down. 
Set  the  ladder  nearly  per- 
pendicularly by  the  side 
of  a  tree,  and  stay  it  with 
two  guy-ropes  from  the 
top  of  the  ladder,  fasten- 
ed to  trees,  or  stakes,  or 
fences,  as  shown  by  Fig. 
119.  The  ropes  need  not 
be  larger  than  a  common 
clothes-line.  A  man  can 
ascend  to  the  very  top  of 
a  long  ladder  secured  in 
this  way,  and  pluck  half 
*^  a  bushel  or  more  of  fruit 
with    entire    safety.      A 

ZMA..,^  ^^^^         ^^^*^^  ^^^  suspended  on 
-.  .       7"^:      ,'^/,  ^^   ^^  ^^    one  shoulder,  and  under 

Manner  of  securing  a  long  fruit-ladder  by  the  ' 

Bide  of  a  tall  tree,  when  it  is  desirable  to    the   arm   On   the   Opposite 
pluck  the  fruit  from  the  long  and  slender  '^^ 

branches  without  injuring  the  buds  and    ^\^q     ig    much   mOre   COn- 
twigs.    L  represents  the  top  of  the  ladder,  ' 

and  PP  stakes  driven  into  the  ground,  to  ycnient  than  a  basket,  as 

which  cords  from  the  upper  end  of  the  lad-  ' 

der  are  fastened.  there  is  no  danger  of  let- 

ting the  fruit  drop,  as  with  a  basket ;  and  both  hands  are 
always  free,  whether  the  picker  be  in  the  tree  or  on  a  ladder. 
If  fruit  be  borne  upon  long,  slender  branches,  by  drawing 
the  ends  inward  or  downward  with  a  small  hook,  all  the  fruit 
may  be  reached  for  several  feet  on  each  side.  The  choicest 
specimens  of  pears  and  apples  often  grow  on  the  ends  of 
lon^,  slender  branches,  which  will  not  support  a  ladder,  nor 
a  man  while  plucking  the  fruit.  When  long  ladders  are 
leaned  against  the  outside  of  trees,  many  of  the  small  limbs 
and  fruit-buds  are  broken  off.  By  securing  a  long  ladder 
as  represented,  fruit  can  be  gathered  by  hand  which  could 


GATHERING  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  APPLES. 


295 


Fig.  120. 


Fiff.  121. 


not  be  reached  in  any  other 
manner.  Then,  by  providing 
a  common  grain-bag  hung  over 
one  shoulder,  as  shown  by  Fig. 
120,  one  can  climb  around  in  a 
tree-top  with  half  a  bushel  of 
apples,  pears,  or  other  fruit, 
much  more  conveniently  than 
if  the  fruit  were  in  a  basket. 

Portable  Staging.  —  The  il- 
lustration   given    below   (Fig. 

121)  represents  a  style  of  port-    Plucking  apples  and  putting  them  in 
.  ^  '   I  ^^^     1  ^  graiu-bag  hung  over  one  shoul- 

able    staging,   which    will   be      der. 

found  exceedingly  convenient  when  plucking  any  kind  of 

fruit.  It  consists  of 
two  light  ladders,  about 
eight  feet  in  length,  hav- 
ing a  strong  board,  say 
four  feet  long  and  fifteen 
inches  wide,  secured  to 
the  top  of  each  lad- 
der with  small  carriage- 
bolts.  Nails  would  be 
liable  to  break  when  the 
staging  is  moved  about. 
The  rounds  should  not 
be  more  than  a  foot 
apart.  If  preferable, 
pieces  of  boards  may  be 
employed  as  treads  in- 
stead of  rounds.  Let 
pieces  be  bolted  in  the 
form  of  the  letter  X, 
from  the  top  of  one  leg 


Convenient  portable  fruit-ladder  and  staging. 


296  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

to  the  bottom  of  another,  to  make  it  stand  firm.  Secure  to 
one  side  strips  for  a  hand-rail.  When  making  such  a  de- 
vice, procure  small  carriage-bolts  at  some  hardware  store, 
which  will  cost  but  little,  and  hold  every  part  desirably- 
firm.  Every  part  should  be  made  so  light  that  one  per- 
son will  be  able  to  move  it  from  tree  to  tree.  In  case  the 
ground  is  not  level,  let  two  extension  legs  be  bolted  to  one 
side  for  the  purpose  of  holding  it  level. 

How  to  barrel  Apples  for  Market. — The  first  apples  that 
are  put  into  a  barrel  should  be  laid  in  by  hand,  about  as 
carefully  as  eggs  are  handled.  It  injures  fruit,  far  more 
than  most  persons  are  wont  to  suppose,  to  pour  it  into  a 
barrel.  Even  when  a  barrel  is  half-filled,  the  fruit  will  be 
injured  by  allowing  one  apple  to  drop  on  another.  Fruit 
must  be  handled  with  extreme  care.  As  soon  as  a  barrel  is 
full,  let  it  be  shaken  thoroughly,  press  the  head  in  with  a 
screw  or  well-adjusted  lever,  like  Fig.  122,  with  force  enough 
Fig.  122  to  prevent  the  apples  from  moving 

when  the  barrel  is  transported,  but 
not  with  force  sufficient  to  break 
the  skin  or  bruise  the  flesh  of  any 
of  the  fruit.  If  it  were  not  for 
the  necessity  of  packing  the  fruit 

A  convenient  apple-packer.       g^  ^jgi^^  as  tO  prevent  its   shaking 

when  the  barrel  is  moved  about,  it  would  be  much  better 
not  to  press  the  apples  at  all.  The  reckless  manner  in 
which  apples  are  now  pressed  into  their  packages  is  one 
prolific  cause  of  their  premature  decay.  After  the  apples 
have  been  shaken  down,  allowance  should  be  made  for 
pressing  the  head  down  with  the  lever  about  half  an  inch. 
When  apples  are  not  pressed  into  the  barrel  so  tightly  that 
the  fruit  will  not  shake,  almost  every  specimen  will  soon  be 
badly  damaged  when  transported  on  a  wagon. 

When  to  gather  Apples. — Summer  apples,  and  such  fruit 


OATHERINQ  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  APPLES,         297 

as  ripens  early  in  autumn,  will  keep  mucli  longer  if  plucked 
before  the  specimens  are  dead  ripe.  The  Sweet  Bough  and 
Early  Harvest  apples,  for  example,  if  gathered  as  soon  as 
the  fruit  has  really  come  to  maturity,  and  laid  carefully  in  a 
cool  place,  will  often  keep  a  month ;  whereas,  if  left  on  the 
trees,  they  would  become  so  dead  ripe  in  a  week  that  they 
would  be  of  little  value.  And  yet  apples  may  be  gathered 
too  early.  When  fruit  is  gathered  before  it  has  come  to 
maturity,  it  will  wilt  and  become  insipid,  like  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  early  apples  that  are  sold  in  the  New  York 
markets.  By  a  little  observation,  it  will  be  noticed  that 
well-matured  apples,  after  being  stored  a  while,  look  and 
feel  quite  oily  when  handled.  They  should  be  handled  with 
considerable  care  after  this  process  has  taken  place,  so  as  to 
disturb  this  oily  coating  as  little  as  possible,  for  this  is  Na- 
ture's covering  to  prevent  decay ;  and  what  better  material 
could  she  have  supplied  for  such  a  purpose  ?  If  apples  are 
plucked  before  they  have  ceased  to  grow,  this  oily  bloom 
will  be  wanting  on  the  surface  of  the  wilted  fruit.  Hence 
beginners  should  study  to  determine  the  true  period  for 
gathering  every  kind  of  fruit. 

Fruit-preserving  Houses. — In  many  large  cities  spacious 
fruit-preserving  houses  have  been  erected  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  crude  fruit  until  the  succeeding  summer.  When 
one  has  but  few  apples,  it  would  not  pay  to  construct  such 
a  building.  A  fruit-preserving  house  is  built  very  much 
like  an  ice-house.  The  side  walls  are  made  double,  and  the 
space  between  them  is  filled  with  sawdust  or  dry  tan-bark. 
The  doorway  is  double,  having  a  door  on  each  side  of  the 
jamb  casings.  The  floor  over  the  fruit-room  is  made  of 
sheet  metal,  water-tight,  and  on  it  is  placed  ice  two  or 
three  feet  in  depth,  over  which  a  deep  layer  of  straw  is 
spread.  The  ice  maintains  the  temperature  at  such  a  uni- 
form degree,  that  the  more  perishable  sorts  and  varieties 

13* 


298  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

of  fruit  may  be  kept  any  desired  length  of  time.  The  at- 
mosphere in  such  a  fruit-room  is  at  about  freezing-point, 
although  the  apples  and  other  fruit  are  not  frozen.  As 
crude  fruit  is  constantly  emitting  moisture,  the  fruit-room 
would  soon  become  quite  too  damp,  were  it  not  for  the  ab- 
sorbent material  which  is  kept  spread  out  on  the  floor  in 
large  quantities.  Chloride  of  lime  is  employed  for  the  ab- 
sorbent, which  has  a  great  attraction  for  moisture,  and  a 
capacity  for  retaining  a  large  quantity.  As  soon  as  this 
absorbent  material  is  saturated  with  moisture,  it  is  carried  - 
out  into  the  air  and  dried  thoroughly,  and  returned.  By 
this  means  the  fruit-room  is  kept  cold  and  very  dry.  But 
when  fruit  is  removed  from  such  a  preserving-house  in  the 
summer,  it  will  soon  decay,  if  it  is  not  consumed  immedi- 
ately. If  the  moisture  in  such  a  fruit-room  were  not  ab- 
sorbed at  once,  the  atmosphere  would  soon  become  like  a 
dense  aqueous  and  stagnant  vapor,  exceedingly  unfavorable 
for  the  preservation  of  fruit. 

Fried  Apples  for  Human  Food. — ^In  those  regions  where 
potatoes  are  few  and  poor,  on  account  of  the  rot,  fried  ap- 
ples are  an  excellent  substitute.  They  are  quickly  pre- 
pared for  the  table,  which  is  often  a  consideration  of  no 
small  importance.  Wash  them,  cut  them  in  two,  take  out 
the  stem,  core,  and  calyx,  and,  unpealed,  put  them  into  a  tin 
pan  with  butter,  or  the  gravy  of  baked  pork,  with  some 
water,  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  to  be  fried ;  cover 
them  with  a  lid,  set  them  on  the  stove,  stir  them  occasion- 
ally until  they  become  soft,  and  be  careful  not  to  burn 
them.  Romanites,  which  are  often  almost  worthless,  baked 
or  raw,  "disappear  with  good  gusto  when  fried."  We 
may  truthfully  pronounce  despisable  Penics  good,  when 
fried ;  but  the  Porters,  Bellflowers,  Talman's  Sweeting,  and 
a  long  list  which  we  might  name,  when  fried,  are  really  a 
luxury.     Most  persons  like  apples  in  a  raw  state,  or  when 


QATHERINO  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  APPLE^         299 

they  are  baked  or  stewed ;  and  it  can  not  be  denied  that 
thev  furnish  one  of  the  most  wholesome  and  agreeable 
kinds  of  diet.  Although  raw,  stewed,  or  baked  apples  may- 
be pronounced  excellent  and  delicious,  still  there  are  many- 
kinds,  when  fried,  which  are  super  -  excellent ;  and  they 
who  seldom  meet  with  a  dish  of  fried  apples  often  wonder 
why  they  are  not  always  fried  instead  of  baked.  When 
apples  are  baked,  they  often  burst  open,  and  much  of  the 
best  part  flows  out  as  juice,  and  is  lost.  But  when  they 
are  fried,  the  whole  is  saved.  In  our  own  family  we  con- 
sume five  or  six  barrels  of  apples  before  one  barrel  of  Irish 
potatoes  is  gone.  Many  persons  who  do  not  care  to  eat 
more  than  one  or  two  crude  apples  per  day,  will  often  eat 
six  or  eight  when  they  are  fried.  Dr.  Hall  has  stated,  in 
his  "  Journal  of  Health,"  that,  in  order  to  derive  a  more 
decided  medicinal  effect,  fruits  should  be  largely  eaten  soon 
after  rising  in  the  morning,  and  about  midway  between 
breakfast  and  dinner. 

Good  ripe  apples  constitute  a  cooling  diet.  The  philo- 
sophical reason  for  this  is,  the  acid  of  the  fruit  stimulates 
the  liver  to  greater  activity  in  separating  the  bile  from  the 
blood,  which  is  its  proper  work,  the  result  of  which  is,  the 
bowels  become  free,  and  the  pores  of  the  skin  are  open. 
Under  such  circumstances,  fevers  and  want  of  appetite  are 
impossible.  The  appetite  frequently  yearns  for  a  pickle, 
when  nothing  else  could  be  relished.  This  is  often  the 
case  in  the  experience  of  most  of  us.  It  is  the  instinct  of 
nature  pointing  to  a  cure.  The  want  of  a  natural  appetite 
is  the  result  of  the  bile  not  being  separated  from  the 
blood ;  and  if  not  remedied,  fever  is  inevitable,  from  the 
slightest  grades  to  that  of  bilious,  congestive,  and  yellow 
fever.  But  those  persons  who  eat  large  quantities  of 
crude  or  cooked  apples  are  never  troubled  with  constipa- 
tion or  biliousness.     An   incalculable  amount  of  sickness 


300  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

and  suffering  would  be  prevented  every  year,  if  apples 
were  employed  to  a  greater  extent  on  our  tables,  instead 
of  such  immense  quantities  of  heavy  animal  food.  Good 
beef,  mutton,  oysters,  and  roasted  fowls  make  excellent  liv- 
ing ;  yet,  in  many  instances,  a  dish  of  fried  apple  will  oper- 
ate like  magic  in  giving  a  healthful  tone  to  the  whole  sys- 
tem of  a  high-living  dyspeptic.  By  an  arrangement  of 
Providence  as  beautiful  as  it  is  benign,  the  fruits  of  the 
earth  are  ripening  during  the  whole  summer.  From  the 
delightful  strawberry,  on  the  opening  of  spring,  to  the  lus- 
cious peach  of  the  fall,  there  is  a  constant  succession  of  su- 
perb aliments ;  made  luxurious  by  that  Power  whose  lov- 
ing kindness  is  in  all  his  works,  in  order  to  stimulate  us  to 
their  highest  cultivation,  connecting  with  their  use  also  the 
most  health-giving  influences.  Liebig  says,  they  prevent 
debility,  strengthen  digestion,  correct  the  putrefactive  ten- 
dencies of  nitrogenous  food,  avert  scurvy,  and  strengthen 
the  power  of  productive  labor.  If  eaten  frequently  at 
breakfast,  with  coarse  bread  and  butter,  without  meat  or 
flesh,  apples  have  an  admirable  effect  on  the  system,  often 
removing  constipation,  correcting  acidities,  and  cooling  off 
febrile  conditions  more  effectually  than  the  most  approved 
medicines. 

Apples  for  Domestic  Animals.  —  It  will  be  perceived  by 
the  analysis  on  page  304  that  sweet  apples  are  of  great  value 
in  feeding  almost  any  kind  of  stock.  Swine  will  fatten  rap- 
idly on  them.  Cows,  if  not  over-fed  with  them  at  the  start, 
and  care  is  taken  to  cut  or  mash  the  apples,  so  that  the  ani- 
mals can  not  get  choked,  will  increase  in  milk  and  improve 
in  condition.  Apples  are  an  excellent  succulent  food  for 
horses  in  winter.  Any  varieties  of  sweet  apples  that  bear 
abundantly  will  answer  the  purpose.  Unfortunately,  but 
little  attention  has  been  given  to  varieties  for  feeding  do- 
mestic   animals    exclusively.      Hardiness,   thriftiness,  and 


^ 


OATHERINQ  ANU  MANAGEMENT  OF  AFFLEH.         301 

great  bearing  qualities  are  the  main  requisites.  For  early- 
feeding,  probably  the  High-top,  or  Summer  Sweet  of  the 
"West,  may  prove  one  of  the  best.  There  are  several  au- 
tumn sorts  at  least  worthy  of  trial,  among  which  are  the 
following :  the  Coolies'  Sweet  is  a  fine  grower,  and  a  very- 
productive  'New  Jersey  variety ;  the  Jersey  Sweet  is  also 
very  productive,  but  the  tree  is  less  vigorous ;  the  Munson 
Sweeting  and  Haskell  Sweet  are  both  productive,  and  of 
excellent  quality,  but  not  yet  much  tried  west  of  New 
York.  The  Pumpkin  Sweet  may  prove  a  good  autumn 
sort  for  this  purpose.  The  Sweet  Pearmain  is  said  to  suc- 
ceed well  at  the  West,  and  may  be  valuable  for  late  fall 
and  winter  feeding.  The  same  remark  will  apply  to  the 
Sweet  Romanite,  a  Western  variety.  The  Wing  Sweeting, 
although  not  large,  is  very  productive  at  the  East,  and 
keeps  well — if  as  much  so  at  the  West,  it  would  be  valua- 
ble. The  Green  Sweet  is  hardy  and  productive,  and  keeps 
into  spring.  The  most  profitable  sweet  apple  that  we  have 
ever  met  w^ith — both  for  market,  for  feeding  stock,  and  for 
culinary  purposes — is  the  Talman's  Sweeting.  (See  Illus- 
tration, p.  282.)  From  a  long  experience  in  feeding  sweet 
apples  to  milch-cows,  horses,  sheep,  swine,  and  other  stock, 
I  know  it  will  pay  to  cultivate  the  Talman's  Sweeting  to 
feed  stock  during  the  foddering  season.  If  apples  are  fed 
in  connection  with  meal,  and  only  once  per  day,  a  bushel  of 
apples  will  be  of  as  much  value  as  a  bushel  of  oats.  Yet 
apples  can  not  be  relied  on  as  the  proper  feed  for  giving 
teams  strength.  When  teams  are  standing  idle  for  several 
days  in  succession,  sweet  apples,  fed  in  connection  with 
meal  or  grain,  will  keep  animals  in  a  better  condition  than 
nothing  but  grain  and  hay  at  every  feeding.  Most  farmers 
have  heretofore  made  an  egregious  mistake  in  judgment 
touching  the  value  of  sweet  apples  for  feeding  sheep  during 
the  foddering  season,  and  for  feeding  store  swine.     A  sue- 


302  TEE  APPLE  CULTUMIST. 

cessful  and  intelligent  farmer  of  Central  New  York  recent- 
ly wrote  us  as  follows  : 

*'  I  have  been  amused  to  hear  farmers  who  have  devoted  years  to  their  calling 
say  that  apples  dry  up  their  cows,  and  that  they  are  not  worth  gathering  for  milch- 
cows.  This  year  apples  were  too  scarce  to  feed  :  hut  I  think,  fi'om  some  experi- 
ments that  I  have  made,  that  they  are  at  least  equal  to  carrots  in  weight  for  feed- 
ing stock,  and  especially  milch-cows,  as  they  always  gain  both  in  milk  and  flesh 
when  fed  on  them.  Apples  and  pumpkins  should  not  be  suflTered  to  freeze,  as  that 
injures  their  feeding  properties  very  much.  I  never  saw  lambs  do  better  every 
way  than  when  their  feed  was  good  hay  and  one  bushel  of  apples  per  hundred 
sheep  per  day.  Several  who  have  fed  apples  to  their  sheep  have  refused  to  sell 
them  for  cider-making,  and  even  fed  out  those  of  the  best  quality  to  dry,  in  pref- 
erence to  drying  them  for  sale  at  the  prices  paid  for  dried  fruit." 

Chemical  Analysis  of  Apples.— According  to  the  analyses  made  by  Professor  Salis- 
bury, "The  apple  is  usually  rich  in  phosphoric  and  sulphuric  acids,  and  potash 
and  soda.  Hence  we  may  infer  that  bone-dust,  ashes,  salt,  and  plaster  would  be 
likely  to  prove  useful  as  portions  of  the  manure  applied  to  bearing  trees,  in  addi- 
tion to  what  is  already  contained  in  yard-manure.  One  striking  difference  in  the 
composition  of  the  apple  and  potato  is  the  entire  absence  of  starch  in  the  apple, 
while  in  the  potato  starch  constitutes  nearly  one-third  of  the  solid  part.  The  ap- 
ple, according  to  this  analysis,  is  rather  superior  to  the  potato  in  fat-producing 
qualities,  which  accords  with  the  experience  of  some  accurate  farmers.  The  ap- 
ple contains  about  twice  as  much  of  the  compounds  of  nitrogen  as  the  potato. 
The  English  Russet  contains  less  water  and  more  dry  matter  than  most  other 
sorts.  This  is  doubtless  the  reason  why  this  variety  is  so  hard  to  freeze.  The 
Talraan's  Sweeting  contains  more,  the  Greening  still  more,  and  the  Kilham  Hill 
most  water  of  all,  ranging  in  all  these  varieties  from  79  to  86  per  cent.  A  fresh 
potato  contains  aljout  as  much  water  as  the  Russet.  The  apple  contains  a  small 
quantity  of  tannic  and  gallic  acids,  the  proportion  being  greater  in  the  Russets 
than  in  most  other  varieties.  The  astringency  so  striking  in  some  kinds  of  apples, 
which  is  easily  detected  by  the  black  color  given  to  a  knife  or  any  iron  substance 
when  thrust  into  them,  is  owing  to  the  presence  of  these  acids.  The  ripe  apple  is 
rich  in  sugar  and  a  body  analogous  to  gum,  called  dextrine,  which  has  the  same 
composition  as  starch,  although  it  differs  from  starch  in  being  soluble  in  cold  wa- 
ter, and  not  colored  blue  with  iodine. 

"  Dextrine  and  sugar  in  the  apple  take  the  place  of  starch,  dextrine,  and  sugar 
in  the  potato.  Of  the  former,  100  lbs.  of  good  fruit  contain  of  dextrine,  sugar, 
and  extract  11.4  lbs. ;  the  latter  has,  in  the  same  amount  of  fresh  tubers,  13,61  lbs. 
starch ;  dextrine,  sugar,  and  extract,  68.5  lbs. ;  in  the  same  quantity  of  dry  potato 
there  is  of  starch,  dextrine,  sugar,  and  extract,  68.02  lbs.  The  above  proximate 
principles  are  the  main  bodies  in  the  apple  and  potato  which  go  to  form  fat.  In 
the  aggregate  amount,  then,  of  fat-producing  products  it  will  be  seen  that  the  apple 
and  potato  do  not  materially  differ.  It  would  be  natural,  however,  to  infer  that 
50  lbs.  of  dextrine  and  sugar  would,  if  taken  into  the  system,  be  more  likely  to 
make  a  greater  quantity  of  fat  in  a  given  time,  or  at  least  to  make  the  same 
amount  in  a  shorter  period,  than  an  equal  weight  of  starch,  for  this  reason,  that 
the  two  former  bodies,  although  nearly  the  same  in  composition  with  the  latter, 
are  yet  physically  farther  advanced  in  organization,  and  hence  probably  approxi- 
mate nearer  the  constitution  of  fat.  If  this  view  be  taken,  then  the  apple,  if  of 
good  quality,  may  be  regarded  equally,  if  not  more  rich  in  fat-producing  products 
than  the  potato.  One  hundred  lbs.  of  fresh  apple  contain  of  albumen  1.38  lbs. ; 
the  same  amount  of  fresh  potato  has  i-  of  a  lb.  ;  100  lbs.  of  dry  apple  contain  8.37 
11)8.  of  albumen,  and  an  equal  weight  of  dry  tubers  has  IJ  lbs. ;  100  lbs.  of  fresh 
fruit  contain  of  casein  0.16  of  a  lb.,  and  an  equal  weight  of  fresh  tubers  0.46  of  a 
lb. ;  100  lbs.  of  dry  apples  have  1  lb.  of  casein,  and  the  same  amount  of  dry  potato 


GATHERING  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  APPLEIS.         303 

contains  2^  lbs.  Hence  it  will  be  observed  that  100  lbs.  of  fresh  apple  contain  of 
albumen  and  casein  1.54  lbs.,  and  the  same  quantity  of  fresh  potato  0.7  of  a  lb. ; 
100  lbs.  of  dry  fruit  have  of  albumen  and  casein  9.3T  lbs.,  and  an  equal  amount  of 
dry  tubers  contains  3.50  lbs. 

"  From  the  above  it  vpill  readily  be  seen  that  in  albumen  the  apple  is  richer 
than  the  potato,  while  in  casein  the  reverse  is  the  case ;  that  the  aggregate 
amount  of  albumen,  casein,  and  gluten  in  good  varieties  of  the  apple  is  more  than 
double  that  of  the  same  bodies  in  the  potato  ;  hence  the  former  may  be  regarded 
richer  than  the  latter  in  those  bodies  which  strictly  go  to  nourish  the  system,  or 
in  other  words,  to  form  muscle,  brain,  nerve,  and  in  short  assist  in  building  up 
and  sustaining  the  organic  part  of  all  the  tissues  of  the  animal  body. 

"  Dextrine  and  gum  should  not  be  confounded  with  each  other.  They  differ 
very  materially  in  many  respects.  The  former  possesses  the  property  of  being 
converted  into  grape-sugar  by  sulphuric  acid  and  by  diastase,  while  the  latter 
does  not.  Dextrine  belongs  to  the  class  of  ])odies  which  are  susceptible  of  nour- 
ishing the  animal  body.  All  the  starch  taken  as  food  is  converted  into  dextrine 
before  it  is  assimilated  by  the  system.  The  acids  of  the  stomach  possess  the 
property  of  converting  starch  into  this  body. 

"  In  the  fresh  apple,  100  lbs.  contain  about  3.2  lbs.  of  fibre ;  0.2  of  a  lb.  of  gluten, 
fat,  and  wax ;  3.1  lbs.  of  dextrine ;  8.3  lbs.  of  sugar  and  extract ;  0.3  of  a  lb.  of 
malic  acid ;  1.4  lbs.  of  albumen  ;  0.16  of  a  lb.  of  casein  ;  and  82.06  lbs.  of  water. 
In  the  dry  apple,  100  lbs.  contain  about  19  lbs.  of  fibre  ;  1.1  lbs.  of  gluten,  fat,  and 
wax  ;  18.7  lbs.  of  dextrine  ;  49.8  lbs.  of  sugar  and  extract ;  2  lbs.  of  malic  acid  ; 
8.4  lbs.  of  albumen  ;  and  1  lb.  of  casein.  In  the  fresh  potato,  100  lbs.  contain  about 
9.7  lbs.  of  starch  ;  5.8  lbs.  of  fibre ;  0.2  of  a  lb.  of  gluten  ;  0.08  of  a  lb.  of  fatty  mat- 
ter ;  }  of  a  lb.  of  albumen  ;  0.45  of  a  lb.  of  casein  ;  1.27  lbs.  of  dextrine  ;  2.64  lbs. 
of  sugar  and  extract;  and  79.7  lbs.  of  water.  In  the  dry  potato,  100  lbs.  contain 
about  48.5  lbs.  of  starch ;  29  lbs.  of  fibre.  1  lb.  of  gluten  ;  0.4, of  a  pound  of  fatty 
matter ;  1.25  lbs.  of  albumen  ;  2.25  lbs.  of  casein ;  6.32  lbs.  of  dextrine  ;  and  13.2 
lbs.  of  sugar  and  extract." 

According  to  the  analyses  of  Professor  Salisbury,  the  ap- 
ple has  the  advantage  of  containing  a  greater  proportion 
of  nitrogenous  matter.  Hence  the  value  of  apples,  both  as 
an  article  of  human  food  and  as  food  for  all  kinds  of  do- 
mestic animals.  Professor  Salisbury  gives  the  inorganic 
and  organic  analyses  of  six  different  varieties  of  apples, 
viz.:  Talman's  Sweeting,  Swaar,  Roxbury  Russet,  Rhode 
Island  Greening,  and  Kilham  Hill.  He  also  observes,  that 
the  analyses  were  calculated  both  with  and  without  the 
carbonic  acid.  It  was  necessary  that  they  should  be  calcu- 
lated without  it,  in  order  to  show  the  real  composition  of 
the  organic  matter  of  the  fruit.  The  carbonic  acid  is  form- 
ed during  the  combustion  of  the  organic  matter,  and  hence 
can  not  be  regarded  as  a  constituent  part  of  the  apple,  ex- 
cept in  very  minute  quantity.  We  extract  the  table  show- 
ing the  mean  of  those  analyses,  as  follows  : 


304 


THE  APPLE   CULTVRIHT. 


INORGANIC  OR  ASH  ANALYSIS. 


With  Carbonic 
Acid. 

Without  Car- 
bonic Acid. 

Carbonic  acid 

15.210 
1.362 
1.336 

11.252 
8.442 
1.400 

31.810 

20.810 
1.822 
6.062 
4.890 

'  V.63T 
1.593 

13.267 
4.199 
1.669 

37.610 

24.799 
2.169 
7.229 
5.828 

Silica 

Ptiosphate  of  iron 

Phosphoric  acid     .... 

Lime 

Potasr.^f .' .' '.'.'.'. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '.  .*  * ." .' .' .' ." ." .'  * ." .' .' .' .' .' '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. '. 

Soda 

Chlorine 

Sulphuric  acid 

Organic  matter  thrown  down  by  nitrate  of  siiver. . 

99.396 

100.000 

PROXIMATE,  OR  ORGANIC  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  SAME  VARIETIES. 


1000  Parts  of 
fresh  Apple. 

1000  Parts  of 
dried  Apjile. 

32.03 
1.94 

31.44 

83.25 
3.17' 

13.79 
1.64 

190.879 

11.463 

186.805 

497.627 

19.585 

83.720 

9.921 

Glutinous  matter,  with  a  little  fat  and  wax 

Dextrine 

Sugar  and  extract 

Malic  acid 

Casein 

167.26 

826.64 

6.10 

1000.000 

Water 

Loss 

1000.000 

Drying  Apples. 

How  often,  to  dry,  on  foul  cords  are  they  strung, 

In  murky,  low  kitchens  and  out-houses  hung ; 

As  roosts  for  vile  hornets,  bugs,  millers,  and  flies ; 

Then  served  at  a  banquet  in  dried-apple  pies.— Edwards. 

The  practice  adopted  by  a  large  proportion  of  those  per- 
sons who  prepare  dried  apples  for  market  deserves  the  se- 
verest reprobation.  The  fruit  is  half-peeled,  half-cored, 
and  often  not  cored  at  all,  cut  in  quarters  or  slices,  and 
spread  on  the  filthy  roof  of  a  building,  or  on  dirty  boards, 
where  it  is  exposed  to  alternate  sunshine  and  rain,  until  the 
repulsive-looking  pieces,  thickly  dotted  with  fly-specks,  are 
sufficiently  dry  to  be  stored  in  bins  or  barrels  as  an  article 
of  human  food.     The  people  who  practise  this  odious  sys- 


OATHERINO  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  APPLES.         305 

tern  of  drying  fruit  receive  their  merited  reward  in  a  price 
so  low  per  pound  that  they  have  no  encouragement  to  dry 
any  more  fruit.  On  the  contrary,  if  they  would  peel  their 
apples  neatly,  and  dry  them  properly,  so  that  the  dry  fruit 
would  appear  attractive  as  a  desirable  article  of  human 
food,  instead  of  presenting  a  disgusting  and  repulsive  ap- 
pearance, they  would  receive  an  encouraging  compensation 
for  their  labor.  In  one  sense,  the  process  of  drying  apples 
is  like  making  butter.  Let  the  labor  be  performed  in  a 
neat  manner,  and  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  a 
generous  and  a  remunerative  price.  On  the  contrary,  if 
neatness  in  milking,  churning,  and  working  the  butter  is 
neglected,  the  reward  is  a  low  price  for  the  products  of  one's 
industry.     The  same  is  true  in  regard  to  drying  apples. 

The  philosophy  of  drying  apples,  or  any  other  fruit,  con- 
sists in  simply  evaporating  the  water  from  the  juice  of  the 
fruit,  and  curing  the  soluble  portions  of  the  fruit,  so  that 
they  will  not  mould  or  decay.  Hence,  when  fruit  is  dried 
by  solar  heat  on  scaffolds,  the  fundamental  requirements 
are  a  rapid  current  of  air,  and  the  greatest  amount  of  sun- 
light upon  a  limited  extent  of  surface.  To  secure  the  first, 
the  table  or  scaffold  upon  which  the  apple  is  to  be  spread 
should  not  be  level,  but  inclined  toward  the  south  at  an  an- 
gle of  ten  or  fifteen  degrees,  so  as  to  present  the  surface 
more  fully  to  the  sun.  The  second  point  is  gained  by  re- 
moving the  skin  and  cutting  the  fruit  into  slices,  the  thin- 
ner, the  more  expeditious  the  result.  The  drying  is  facili- 
tated by  moving  the  pieces  about  several  times  during  the 
day,  so  as  to  expose  them  more  freely  to  the  air  and  sun. 
They  should  be  protected  from  the  dew  by  a  water-tight 
covering,  as  fruit  willnot  dry  during  damp  days  and  nights 
when  exposed  to  the  ordinary  influences  of  the  atmosphere. 
The  process  of  drying  must  then  be  so  rapid  that  no  decay, 
nor  even  discoloration,  shall  take  place  until  the  operation 


306 


THE  APPLE  CULTURIIST. 


is  completed.  Our  climate  is  too  precarious  to  think  of 
drying  fruit  properly  in  the  open  air,  even  for  the  earliest 
varieties.  Some  artificial  arrangement  for  the  purpose 
must  therefore  be  devised. 

As  soon  as  an  apple  is  peeled,  the  sooner  the  water  can  be 
removed  from  the  juice,  the  more  delicious  the  dried  fruit 
will  appear.  Ripe  fruit  must  be  dried  rapidly,  or  it  will 
begin  to  decay  before  the  pieces  are  sufficiently  dry  to  con- 
tinue sweet  during  the  entire  year.  Apples  are  frequently 
spread  out  on  boards,  and  placed  in  an  oven  to  hasten  the 
drying  process.  The  only  objection  to  heating  the  fruit  in 
an  oven  is  a  want  of  circulation.  Heated  damp  air  tends 
to  cook  the  fruit  rather  than  to  dry  ito  If  there  could  be  a 
rapid  current  of  warm  dry  air  passing  through  the  oven,  so 
as  to  carry  away  the  dampness  from  the  fruit,  a  large  oven 
would  be  an  excellent  place  for  drying  fruit.  When  fruit 
is  heated  in  a  close  oven,  it  is  quite  liable  to  be  exposed  to 
a  degree  of  heat  that  will  be  injurious  to  it,  so  much  so 
that  it  is  often  half-baked  and  afterwards  dried.  Hence 
such  fruit  is  dark-colored,  aiid  deficient  in  that  excellent 
aroma  which  dried  fruit  will  possess  when  it  has  been  dried 
in  a  current  of  rarefied  or  warm  air.  Rarefied  air  in  mo- 
tion possesses  a  wonderful  capacity  to  absorb  and  convey 
away  the  moisture  of  fruit.  When  fruit  is  surrounded  by 
Fi?.  123.  warm  air  that  is  not  in  motion, 

decay  will  soon  commence. 

A  Cheap  Fruit-drying  Ap- 
paratus.— Figure  123  repre- 
sents a  cheap  and  convenient 
f  device  for  drying  any  kind  of 
fruit,  which  may  be  employed 
in  small  families  with  the 
most  satisfactory  results.     It 

A  couvenieut  fruit-dryer.  COnsistS   of   a  Strong  box,  tWO 


GATHERING  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  APPLES.         307 

by  three  feet  square,  or  it  may  be  only  two  feet  square, 
made  of  inch  boards,  without  top  or  bottom.  One  side  is 
left  open,  as  represented,  to  be  closed  by  one  or  two  doors 
in  front.  The  height  may  be  two,  four,  or  six  feet.  Cleats 
are  then  screwed  to  two  sides  about  two  inches  apart,  to 
support  the  drying-screens,  which  are  made  similar  to  the 
sieves  of  a  fanning  -  mill.  Wire  -  cloth  for  making  the 
screens  can  be  obtained  in  rolls  of  any  desired  length  and 
width  at  extensive  hardware  stores  in  large  cities.  If  the 
cupboard  is  made  two  by  three  feet  square,  wire-cloth  two 
feet  wide  can  be  procured  and  cut  to  fit  the  lengtl^  of 
the  frames,  and  a  piece  nailed  to  each  frame,  as  represented 
Fig  124.  ^y  -^^S"  ^^'^'  '^^®  frame-work  of  the  screens 
i^^.,i^u,^^  may  be  made  of  almost  any  kind  -of  wood 
'■"'■'  "■■""  y-',  dressed  out  smoothly,  say  one  inch  by  one  inch 
and  a  quarter  square,  and  the  corners  mitred, 
glued,  and  nailed  together,  before  the  wire-cloth 
is  fastened  to  the  frames.  Coarse  canvas  may  be 
employed  in  lieu  of  wire-cloth.  Yet  wire  will  be  found  far 
superior,  as  the  circulation  of  warm  air  upward  through  the 
wire  meshes  will  be  much  more  rapid  than  through  canvas. 
The  screens  should  be  about  two  inches  apart.  Then,  in  a 
cupboard  four  feet  high,  there  would  be  about  twenty-four 
screens,  furnishing,  in  the  aggregate,  an  area  of  scaffolding 
equal  to  144  square  feet.  When  the  dryer  is  to  be  used 
for  drying  fruit  of  any  sort,  place  it  over  any  kind  of  stove, 
a  little  above  it,  so  that  the  heated  air  will  rise  directly  up- 
ward through  the  meshes  of  the  screens,  and  thus  convey 
rapidly  away  the  moisture  from  the  fruit.  In  the  course 
of  a  few  hours,  with  a  few  dimes'  worth  of  fuel,  all  the 
fruit  that  could  be  spread  on  the  screens  would  be  dried  in 
the  neatest  manner.  If  the  fruit  at  the  bottom  were  to  dry 
more  rapidly  than  that  on  the  upper  screens,  they  can  be 
changed  in  a  moment.     All  steaming,  stewing,  and  baking 


A  wire  bcieeu. 


308 


THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 


Fig.  125. 


is  thus  completely  avoided.  A  current  of  dry,  fresh,  and 
warm  air  is  constantly  circulating  through  the  box -cup- 
board ;  and  so  long  as  a  particle  of  moisture  remains,  the 
dry  air  will  absorb  it. 

An  Apple-parer  and  Slicer.  —  Fig.  125  represents  the 
latest  and  most  approved  apple-parer  and  slicer  now  in 
use.  As  fast  as  the 
apple  is  peeled,  a  pe- 
culiar -  shaped  knife 
cuts  the  entire  pulp, 
exoept  the  core,  in  one 
long,  spiral  slice,  some- 
what like  a  very  thick 
peeling  placed  on  the 
edge.  After  an  apple 
is  peeled  and  sliced, 
with  two  cuts  of  a 
hand -knife  every  one 
is  laid  on  the  drying- 
screen,  in  twenty  to  forty  neat  and  thin  slices  of  a  uniform 
size,  for  drying  evenly.  With  such  a  machine  one  person 
can  prepare  several  bushels  per  day  for  drying.  They  are 
very  durable,  and  are  not  liable  to  get  out  of  order.  A  small 
lad,  with  a  little  instruction,  will  soon  learn  to  peel  and  slice 
apples  quite  as  rapidly  as  an  adult.  One  of  the  most  impor- 
tant considerations  is  to  keep  the  knives  very  sharp,  so  that 
they  will  cut  easily  through  all  bruised  places.  This  style 
of  parer  was  invented  by  D.  H.  Whittemore,  of  Worcester, 
Massachusetts ;  but  the  machines  may  be  obtained  of  most 
dealers  in  hardware  in  large  cities  at  about  one  dollar  each. 

The  "Lightning  Peeler."  —  Fig.  126,  on  the  following 
page,  is  a  fair  representation  of  an  improved  "  Lightning 
Peeler."  The  tines  of  the  fork  are  secured  to  the  journal 
in  such  a  manner  that  they  will  clasp  either  a  large  or  a 


Paring,  coring,  and  slicing  machine. 


GATHERING  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  APPLES.         309 

small    peach -pit.  _         Fig.  126. 

The  knife  moves 
automatically 
around  the  apple 
or  peach,  as  rep- 
resented by  the 
dotted  line.  The 
main  considera- 
tion in  using  a 
peeling  -  machine 
is  to  put  each  ap- 
ple on  the  fork  so 

^,     ^    ^,  ^  .  T  Combined  peach  and  apple  parer. . 

that   the   outside 

will  revolve  true,  and  to  keep  the  knife  as  sharp  as  a  razor, 

by  whetting  the  edge  on  a  fine-gritted  whetstone. 

Sweet-apple  Molasses. — A  great  many  well-to-do  persons, 
who  have  large  quantities  of  choice  apples,  have  never 
tasted  of  apple  molasses.  If  properly  made,  it  is  a  superb 
luxury.  To  make  a  choice  article,  procure  ripe,  sound, 
sweet  apples,  reject  all  poor  and  half -rotten  specimens — 
grind  them,  express  the  juice  as  directed  for  making  su- 
perior cider,  and  boil  the  cider  down  to  the  desired  con- 
sistency in  a  clean  brass  kettle,  or  in  an  iron  kettle  lined 
with  mastic.  Iron  kettles  will  color  the  liquid.  Maintain 
a  steady  fire,  to  prevent  scorching  it.  The  unfermented 
juice  of  any  variety  of  sweet  apples  may  be  employed. 
While  the  sirup  is  being  boiled,  let  all  the  scum  be  re- 
moved. As  soon  as  it  is  of  the  desired  consistency,  put  it 
in  large  bottles  or  kegs,  and  cork  tight. 

Sweet-apple  Jelly. — One  of  the  greatest  luxuries  of  the 
apple-orchard  consists  of  apple- jelly  made  of  the  juice  of 
ripe,  sweet  apples,  boiled  down  carefully  as  one  boils  maple- 
sap  when  making  sugar,  until  it  is  sufficiently  thick  to  form 
a  jelly  when  it  has  cooled.     If  ripe,  clean,  and  sound  sweet 


310  THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 

apples  be  used,  the  jelly  will  have  no  taste  of  boiled  cider, 
and  will  be  of  a  beautiful  amber  color,  and  of  a  delicious 
taste.  Some  persons  prefer  the  juice  of  tart  apples  to  the 
juice  of  sweet  fruit.  They  who  have  never  tasted  of  such 
jelly  will  be  surprised  to  see  what  a  superb  and  delicate 
luxury  can  be  made  from  the  juice  of  apples.  Such  apple- 
jelly  is  not  affected  by  exposure  to  the  air,  whether  dry  or 
moist,  and  it  will  neither  sour,  nor  mould,  nor  dry  up,  nor 
absorb  water.  Such  an  article  of  course  will  bear  trans- 
portation in  barrels  or  other  vessels  to  any  part  of  the 
world. 

When  a  person  is  going  on  a  long  journey,  a  few  tin 
cans  of  such  jelly  can  be  carried  conveniently;  and  the  lus- 
cious food  will  always  supply  a  great  want.  During  hot 
weather,  a  spoonful  mingled  with  water  will  make  a  bever- 
age that  kings  and  queens  might  covet.  Some  farmers 
prepare  a  number  of  gallons  of  such  jelly  expressly  to  min- 
gle with  drinking-water  in  hot  weather.  A  few  cents' 
worth  of  such  jelly,  mingled  with  water  in  a  hot  day,  will 
enable  a  laborer  to  endure  oppressive  heat  and  fatiguing 
labor  with  very  little  inconvenience  and  suffering. 

Sweet-apple  Pies. — Pies  made  of  sweet  apples  used  in 
precisely  the  same  way  as  pumpkins,  omitting  the  ginger 
and  adding  a  little  lemon  if  liked,  for  seasoning,  are  better, 
to  the  writer's  taste,  than  pumpkin-pie  itself.  Pare,  cut, 
and  stew  the  apples.  If  cooked  in  a  covered  deep  earthen 
or  other  dish  in  the  oven,  they  are  better.  Strain  through 
a  colander,  adding  a  little  milk,  or  cream,  which  is  better. 
If  there  be  no  eggs  to  spare,  stir  in  a  handful  of  flour,  or 
about  a  spoonful  to  a  pie.  Sweeten  to  taste  with  sugar ;  a 
mere  trifle  will  be  found  sufficient.  Bake  thoroughly  in  a 
moderate  oven. 

How  to  make  superior  Cider. — In  order  to  be  able  to  ex- 
press all  the  juice,  every  atom  of  an  apple  must  be  crushed. 


GATHEBING  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  APPLES.         311 


FALL  PIPPIN. 

Sijnomjma.— York  Pippin,  Pound  Pippin,  Episcopal,  Golden  Pippin,  Cat  Head, 
Philadelphia  Pippin,  and  Pound  Royal,  This  is  a  superb  variety.  The  trees, 
when  growing  on  good  land,  yield  bountiful  crops.  This  is  really  an  autumn  va- 
riety, while  there  are  apples  called  Fall  Pippins  which  are  winter  sorts.  The  fruit 
is  usually  large,  roundish-oftJongr,  somewhat  angular,  with  broad  ribs  on  its  sides, 
terminating  in  an  uneven  crown,  where  it  is  nearly  as  broad  as  at  the  base.  Calyx 
large,  open,  deeply  sunk  in  a  broad-angled,  oblique,  irregular  basin.  Stalk  half 
an  inch  long,  set  in  a  rather  small,  even  cavity.  Skin  smooth,  yellowish-green  on 
the  shaded  side,  orange,  tinged  with  brownish-red  next  the  sun,  and  sprinkled 
with  blackish  dots ;  it  is  often  covered  with  a  bloom  like  that  on  a  plum.  Flesh 
yellowish-white,  crisp,  tender,  with  a  sugary  juice. 


If  sliced  fine,  the  juice  can  not  be  forced  out  except  by- 
means  of  a  powerful  hydraulic  press.  When  the  apples  are 
squeezed^  as  it  is  termed,  without  first  being  ground  in  a 
power-press,  the  cider  is  thin  and  light-colored,  and  of  a 
very  inferior  quality ;  fit  for  nothing  except  for  making  al- 
coholic beverages.     In  order  to  make  pleasant  and  aromatic 


312  THE  APPLE  CULTUBIST. 

cider,  the  apples  must  be  reduced  to  a  fine  pulp  destitute 
of  lumps.  After  grinding  or  crushing,  the  pomace  should 
be  allowed  to  stand  a  few  hours,  according  to  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  weather,  for  the  purpose  of  developing  a  rich 
color  and  a  fine  aromatic  taste.  In  warm  weather,  ten 
hours  is  a  sufficient  length  of  time  for  the  pomace  to  stand. 
As  soon  as  little  bubbles  begin  to  appear  on  the  surface, 
which  indicate  the  first  stages  of  fermentation,  the  juice 
should  be  expressed.  When  treated  in  this  manner,  the  ci- 
der will  possess  a  flavor  which  it  never  has  when  expressed 
as  soon  as  the  fruit  is  ground.  Apple-seeds  should  never 
be  crushed,  as  they  will  render  the  cider  bitter.  The  ap- 
ples should  be  well-ripened,  but  not  in  the  least  decayed. 
Every  apple  with  the  least  speck  of  rot  in  it  should  be  re- 
moved, if  you  wish  a  first-rate  beverage.  The  decayed  and 
inferior  apples  may  be  reserved  for  making  vinegar.  Per- 
fect cleanliness  should  be  observed  in  the  grinding  proc- 
ess* Clean  dry  straw  should  be  used  in  forming  the  cheese. 
If  the  straw  be  musty,  the  flavor  will  be  communicated  to 
the  juice.  If  water  be  added,  it  will  make  it  hard  and  un- 
pleasant to  the  taste.  The  casks,  also,  in  which  it  is  put 
for  fermentation  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed,  and  finish- 
ed off  with  a  fumigation  of  brimstone.  This  is  done  by 
burning  inside  the  barrel  a  few  strips  of  canvas  dipped  in 
melted  brimstone.  The  fumes  will  penetrate  all  the  pores, 
and  destroy  the  must  and  correct  the  sourness.  After  the 
fermentation  is  over,  draw  ofE  into  clean  barrels,  and  clarify 
it.  This  can  be  done  by  mixing  a  quart  of  clean  white  sand 
with  the  whites  of  half  a  dozen  eggs  and  a  pint  of  mustard- 
seed,  and  pouring  it  into  the  barrel.  It  may  stand  in  the 
barrel,  or,  if  a  nice  article  is  wanted,  it  should  be  put  into 
quart  bottles  and  corked.  When  superb  cider  is  made  in 
the  foregoing  manner  and  secured  in  bottles,  it  is  as  palata- 
ble, and  much  more  wholesome,  than  most  of  the  wines  of 


OATHERINQ  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  APPLES.         313 


Fig.  12T. 


commerce.  "In  affections  of  the  kidneys,  it  is  an  excellent 
remedy,  and  should  have  a  place  in  every  well-appointed 
cellar.  It  is  a  matter  of  some  importance  that  what  cider 
is  made  should  be  made  in  the  best  manner. 

Cider  and  Wine  Mills. — Fig.  12  V  represents  a  cheap  ci- 
der-mill, designed  particu- 
larly for  those  persons  who 
desire  to  make  only  a  few 
gallons  of  cider,  or  a  few 
gallons  of  wine.  The  ap- 
ples are  ground  by  hand, 
and  the  pomace  falls  di- 
rectly into  the  curb  where 
the  juice  is  to  be  ex- 
pressed. The  grinding  ap- 
paratus is  all  made  of  cast- 
iron,  and  every  part  is  very 
durable.  Such  a  mill  will 
be  found  convenient  when 
one  desires  to  make  only 
part  of  a  barrel  of  cider  in 
the  latter  part  of  summer, 
or  in  autumn,  when  it  would 
not  pay  to  make  the  same 
quantity  with  a  large  mill. 

_,  ,  Hutchinson's  liand  cider  and  wine  mill. 

The  same  press  may  be  em- 
ployed for  many  other  purposes.    Grapes  can  be  run  through 
the  grinder,  or  the  juice  expressed  without  grinding. 

Making  Cider-vinegar. — This  liquid  is  a  modification  of 
acetic  acid.  There  are  many  kinds  of  acetic  acid  sold  as 
vinegar,  which  are  so  unlike  cider-vinegar,  that  the  vile  stuff 
is  no  more  fit  to  mingle  with  human  food  and  drink  than 
muriatic  acid.  Good  cider-vinegar  is  a  very  useful  condi- 
ment, and  often  an  important  luxury  on  the  table.     Let  it 

14 


314 


THE  APPLE  CULTUBIST. 


Fig.  128. 


be  understood,  however,  that  we  discard  the  hurtful  acid 
that  is  made  of  numerous  other  substances  besides  the  juice 
of  apples,  and  sold  as  good  vinegar.  Cider-vinegar  is  made 
by  exciting  a  second,  or  acetous,  fermentation  in  cider. 
During  this  process,  oxygen  is  absorbed  from  the  atmos- 
phere, carbonic  acid  is  evolved,  and  the  alcohol  of  the  cider 
passes  into  acetic  acid.  In  order  to  have  cider-vinegar  of 
the  first  quality,  one  must  have  good  cider.  The  better  the 
cider  is,  the  better  the  vinegar  will  be.  If  vinegar  be  made 
of  watered  cider,  it  will  be  thin  and  weak,  resembling  wa- 
tered cider.     The  accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  128)  will 

give  the  reader 
an  excellent  idea 
of  the  process 
of  making  good 
vinegar.  A  kind 
of  cupboard  is 
made  of  inch 
boards,  about 
three  and  a  half 
feet  high  by  sev- 
en feet  long.  In- 
side of  this  box 
fit  shelves  about 
three  and  a  half 
inches  apart.  On  the  upper  side  of  these  shelves  gouge  out 
channels  running  nearly  from  one  end  to  the  other,  until  the 
upper  side  is  covered  with  zigzag  grooves  running  from  end 
to  end.  There  should  be  cleats  fastened  to  the  under  side  of 
each  shelf,  to  prevent  it  from  warping ;  and  the  cleats  should 
be  put  on  with  screws.  The  channel  must  be  made  slightly 
slanting,  as  in  the  illustration.  The  top  shelf  must  slant  so 
as  to  be  about  two  inches  lower  than  the  other  side,  and  the 
next  shelf  below  it  should  slant  about  two  inches  in  the 


Apparatus  for  making  cider-viuegar. 


GATHERING  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  APPLES.         315 

opposite  direction.  By  this  arrangement,  a  long  zigzag 
channel  is  made  for  the  liquid  to  flow  in.  At  its  end,  in 
the  upper  shelf,  bore  a  hole  through,  so  that  the  vinegar 
can  drop  to  the  next  shelf,  and  traverse  the  channel.  Thus 
it  continues  to  flow  from  end  to  end,  until  it  has  reached 
the  end  of  the  channel  in  the  lower  shelf,  when  it  fall^  into 
a  receptacle.  When  commencing  to  make  vinegar  in  this 
manner,  place  the  maker  in  some  small  room,  where  you  can 
have  a  fire  and  keep  the  temperature  about  ninety  or  nine- 
ty-five degrees  Fahrenheit.  Have  a  barrel,  or  tub,  or  hogs- 
head, placed  a  little  higher  than  the  box,  and  near  the  end 
where  the  first  channel  commences,  in  the  top  shelf.  In  this 
barrel  have  a  faucet,  so  that  you  can  regulate  the  amount  of 
cider  which  it  is  designed  to  have  flow  in  the  channel.  The 
aim  should  be  to  keep  a  very  small  stream  moving  gently 
through  the  maker,  affording  every  d^^  ample  opportunity 
to  absorb  the  desired  amount  of  oxygen  before  the  liquid 
reaches  the  end  of  the  channel  in  the  last  shelf.  A  few  gal- 
lons, or  a  half-barrel  of  good  strong  vinegar,  should  be  run 
through  first,  so  that  the  shelves  will  be  well  soured  before 
letting  other  mixtures  run  through.  It  is  a  good  idea  to 
add  one-third  or  one-fourth  of  good  vinegar  to  any  mixture 
of  cider  before  allowing  it  to  run  through  the  maker.  Open 
the  faucet,  so  that  a  stream  not  larger  than  a  straw  shall 
fall  into  the  channel  of  the  top  shelf.  As  it  falls  through 
the  last  hole  into  the  barrel  below  the  maker,  the  cider  will 
have  changed  to  strong  and  pure  vinegar.  When  once 
started,  the  process  must  continue  night  and  day,  until  the 
supply  fails.  In  warm  weather  no  fire  will  be  required  in 
the  vinegar  apartment,  which  should  be  well  supplied  with 
fresh  air  to  facilitate  oxidation.  If  the  liquid  is  allowed  to 
flow  too  rapidly,  it  will  not  have  time  to  oxidize. 

Buffalo  Vinegar. — This  kind  of  vinegar  is  made  by  min- 
gling ten  gallons  of  water  with  one  gallon  of  molasses,  and 


16 


THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 


allowing  it  to  ferment,  after  which  one  gallon  of  cheap 
whisky  or  two  quarts  of  alcohol  are  added  to  every  ten 
gallons.  This  liquid  is  then  allowed  to  flow  gently  through 
the  maker.  This  is  the  "Buffalo  pure  cider-vinegar,"  of 
which  such  large  quantities  have  been  sold.  People  buy- 
ing it  believe  it  to  be  made  of  pure  cider;  yet  those  in 
the  trade  know  it  does  not  contain  one  drop  of  cider.  If 
a  little  more  whisky  be  added,  the  vinegar  will  be  strong- 
er. By  the  addition  of  carbon  in  the  form  of  molasses  and 
sugar,  the  acid  becomes  more  like  cider-vinegar.  Watered 
cider  may  be  greatly  improved  for  making  vinegar  by  add- 
ing two  gallons  of  molasses  to  a  barrel  of  cider. 


NEX^TOWN   SPITZEN^ER4. 

Sy7ionym«.— Spitzenburgh,  Burlington,  Kountz,  Barrett's  Spitzenburgh,  Wine, 
Vandevere  of  New  York,  Ox-eye,  Spiced  Ox-eye,  Joe  Berry,  and  Matchless.  The 
fruit  of  this  old  and  valuable  variety  is  usually  of  medium  size,  oblate,  slightly 
conical,  and,  when  not  covered  with  stripes,  splashes,  and  dots,  the  surface  is  of  a 
fine  yellow  color,  and  is  usually  washed  with  red,  is  striped  and  splashed  with 
deeper  red,  and  richly  shaded  with  carmine  on  the  sunny  side,  covered  with  a 
light  bloom,  and  sprinkled  with  grayish  specks.  The  flesh  is  very  rich  and  juicy, 
with  a  fine  grain ;  crisp,  tender,  vinous  flavor,  scarcely  subacid.  Season,  Novem- 
ber to  May. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  POMOLOGY.  317 


CHAPTER  X. 

GENERAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    POMOLOGY. 

Tall  branches  stand  waving  their  plumes  to  the  sky, 
To  kiss  the  fleet  summer  clouds  as  they  pass  by ; 
And  frequent  they  shower  a  roseate  wreath 
On  innocent  children  while  playing  beneath.— Edwards. 

An  abbreviated  Pomological  Glossary  is  here  present- 
ed, embracing  such  words  and  phrases  as  are  employed  in 
describing  the  apple,  and  in  the  propagation  and  manage- 
ment of  apple-trees : 

Acuminate,  ending  in  a  produced  tapering  point,  having  it  curved  towards  one 
edge  of  the  leaf.    (See  Leaf.) 

Albumen,  nutritive  organic  matter,  of  great  value  as  an  article  of  food,  and  also 
a  valuable  ingredient  in  manures.  The  white  of  eggs  is  almost  pure  albumen. 
It  constitutes  the  chief  bulk  of  wheat,  rye,  and  other  monocotyledonous  seeds. 

Alburnum,  the  sap-wood  of  any  tree,  or  the  white  portion  between  the  inner  bark 
and  the  duramen,  or  heart-wood.  Also  the  soft,  semi-fluid  substance— the  cambi- 
um—between  the  liber,  or  inner  bark,  and  the  concentric  circle  of  wood  that  was 
formed  the  preceding  year,  after  it  has  solidified. 

Analogue,  an  organ  or  body  resembling  another  organ  of  body,  substituted  for 
or  equivalent  to  it. 

Analysis,  comparing  the  various  parts  of  a  plant,  tree,  etc.,  with  written  de- 
scriptions of  a  given  specimen. 

Annual,  living  or  enduring  but  one  year. 

Annular,  in  the  form  of  a  ring. 

Anther,  that  part  of  the  stamen  of  a  flower  or  apple-blossom  which  contains  the 
pollen.     (See  Stamen.) 

Apetalous,  destitute  of  petals ;  not  having  a  corolla. 

Apex,  the  crown,  summit,  or  upper  end,  as  the  flower-end  of  an  apple. 

Apple.  The  scientific  name  of  the  common  apple,  including  all  known  varieties, 
is  Prjrus  malus.  The  pear  belongs  to  the  same  genus  as  the  apple,  but  is  of  a  diff'er- 
ent  species.  Hence  the  pear  is  denominated  Pyrus  communis.  Mrs.  Lincoln,  in  her 
"Botany,"  says  the  name  of  the  apple  is  Malus  communis,  which  is  only  one  of 
the  mistakes  of  a  great  woman.  The  following  is  a  brief  botanical  description  of 
the  apple-tree:  Stem,  in  open  ground,  ten  to  thirty  feet  high ;  in  thickets,  forty 
to  sixty  feet  high ;  branches  rigid,  crooked,  and  spreading ;  bark  blackish  and 
rough ;  leaves  two  to  four  inches  long,  and  two-thirds  as  wide  as  the  length ; 
ovate,  or  oblong-ovate,  serrate,  acute,  or  short-acuminate,  pubescent  above, 
tomentose  beneath,  petiolate ;  corymbs  sub-umbellate  ;  pedicels  and  calyx  villose- 
tomentose ;  pome  (fruit)  globose  ;  petioles  one-half  or  one  inch  long ;  flowers  ex- 
panding with  the  leaves,  large,  fragrant,  and,  when  in  full  bloom,  often  clothing 
the  tree  in  a  light,  roseate  hue.    The  blossoms  of  some  trees,  however,  are  nearly 


318 


THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 


Fig.  129. 
Apex,  crown,  or  blossom  end. 


Base  or  stem  end  of  an  apple 


Fig.  130. 


white.  (See  Blossoms.)  There  are  at  the  present  day  over  three  thousand  vari- 
eties of  apples,  and  new  varieties  are  being  added  to  the  list  every  year.  The 
timber  of  the  apple-tree  is  very  firm  and  heavy,  and  excellent  for  making  planes 
and  handles  for  tools ;  but  it  is  not  durable  when  exposed  to  the  influences  of 

wet  and  dry  weather.  Botanically  speaking, 
the  fruit  of  the  apple-tree  is  the  seeds  of  the 
apple.  The  names  by  which  the  principal 
parts  of  an  apple  are  designated  may  be 
readily  understood  by  the  annexed  diagram 
of  a  part  of  an  apple,  in  which  A  represents 
the  axis  of  an  apple  by  a  dotted  line  extend- 
ing from  the  calyx,  K,  to  the  stem,  O.  B  rep- 
resents the  basin  of  the  apple.  (See  Basin.) 
C  shows  the  cavity  of  the  fruit.  (See  Cavity.) 
K  designates  the  calyx ;  F  represents  the  ed- 
ible portion  of  the  apple,  the  flesh  or  pulp, 
and  sometimes  improperly  called  the  sarco- 
carp,  which.is  only  applicable  to  stone  fruit. 
(See  Sarcocarp.)  H  shows  the  location  of  the 
core,  which  embraces  the  seeds,  S,  and  the 
hulls,  E,  which  separate  the  carpels,  or  cav- 
ities, in  which  the  apple-seeds  are  formed— 
the  hulls,  or  membranaceous  valves,  which  are  tough,  elastic  shells,  forming  the 
inside  walls  of  the  carpels.  The  number  of  seeds  varies  from  one— or  none  at  all— 
to  every  intermediate  number  between  one  and  twenty. 
Some  apples  may  have  produced  even  a  larger  num- 
ber than  twenty  seeds.  A  great  many  good  apples 
have  only  a  small  core,  and  not  a  single  perfect  seed. 
The  number  of  carpels,  E,  in  an  apple  is  five,  which  are 
all  arranged  around  the  axis  of  the  apple.  All  apple- 
seeds  are  tunicatcd,  or  covered  with  an  endocarp—a.  num- 
ber of  concentric  coats,  which  are  sometimes  so  imper- 
vious to  water  that  seeds  will  lie  in  the  damp  ground  a 
year  or  more  before  a  suificient  amount  of  moisture  can 
find  its  way  to  the  germ  to  promote  germination.  The 
diagram  herewith  given  represents  a  transverse  section 
of  an  apple,  showing  the  number  of  carpels,  the  seeds, 

and  the  core.  It  may  be  perceived,  by  a  glance  at  this  section,  that  when  an  ap- 
ple is  cut  in  transverse  slices  there  will  appear  a  perfect  representation  of  the 
five  petals  of  the  apple-blossom.  The  five  dark-colored  spots  represent  the  car- 
pels. The  black  dot  is  the  axis.  The  illustrations  herewith  given  will  enable 
any  intelligent  person  to  describe  any  apple  in  an  intelligible  manner,  by  simply 
comparing  a  specimen  with  the  diagrams.  When  the 
length  and  breadth  of  an  apple  are  about  equal,  we 
say  it  is  round,  or  roundish,  like  Fig.  131.  If  the 
width  is  greater  than  the  length  from  stem  to  calyx, 
the  apple  is  of  an  oblate  form,  like  Fig.  132,  on  the  op- 
posite page.  Conical  is  employed  to  describe  an  ap- 
ple that  is  tapering  from  the  base  towards  the  apex, 
but  which  is  not  longer  than  the  width,  like  Fig.  133. 
When  the  width  is  less  than  the  length,  like  Fig.  134, 
the  fruit  is  said  to  be  oblong.  Kaighn's  Spitzenberg 
is  a  variety  of  this  form.  The  Rhode  Island  Green- 
ing (p.  164)  is  described  as  oblate-conical,  like  Fig.  135. 
Ribbed  apples  are  represented  by  Fig.  136.  Fruit  of 
Roundish.  an  ovate  form  is  shown  by  Fig.  137.    The  terms  red, 


A  section  of  an  a 


Fig.  131. 


Fig.  132. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  POMOL  00  Y.  319 

Fig.  134, 


Fig.  133. 


Oblate-conical.  Ribbed.  Ovate. 

ruHset,  striped,  streaked,  and  several  other  adjectives,  are  employed  when  describing 
apples. 

Arbor,  a  tree,  a  perennial  plant,  the  top,  stem,  and  branches  of  which  do  not 
die  annually,  like  the  stem  of  an  herK 
Arborescent,  approaching  the  size  and  height  of  a  tree. 
Arboriculture,  the  art  of  propagating  and  cultivating  trees  and  shrubs. 
Arnied,  having  thorns,  spikes,  or  prickles. 

Aromatic,  having  a  spicy  flavor  or  fragrance. 
Ascending,  rising  from  the  ground  in  an  oblique  direction.  When 
branches  cui-ve  upward,  like  Fig.  138,  they  are  said  to  be  ascending. 
Aspect,  in  the  sense  in  which  it  is  employed  in  pomology,  signi- 
fies the  slope  of  <:he  land  where  an  orchard  is  growing.  When  an 
orchard  is  planted  on  the  north  side  of  a  hill,  where  the  surface 
slopes  to  the  north,  we  say  the  orchard  has  a  northern  aspect. 
If  the  surface  slopes  to  the  south  or  to  the  east,  a  southern  or 
eastern  aspect.  Of  course,  when  the  land  is  level,  the  orchard  will 
have  no  aspect. 

Assimilate.    The  leaves  of  a  tree  change  the  crude  sap  into  prop- 
er material  for  developing  and  building  up  every  part,  which  is 
called  assimilating,  or  digesting  and  concocting  the  plant-food. 
Assurgent,  rising  in  a  curve  from  a  declined  base. 
Axil,  the  angle  between  a  leaf  and  a  stem,  or  branch,  on  the  up- 
per side. 

Axis,  the  central  stem,  or  peduncle ;  a  central  line  extending  from 
the  base  of  an  apple  to  the  calyx.     It  sometimes  signifies  the 
elongated  part  of  a  petiole,  upon  which  flowers  appear. 
Bark,  the  rind  or  covering  of  the  woody  parts  of  a  tree.    The  bark  of  trees  is 
composed  of  three  distinct  layers,  of  which  the  outermost  is  called  the  epidermis, 


Ascending 
of  branches. 


320 


THE  APPLE  CULTUMIST. 


the  next,  ihe  parenchyma,  and  the  innermost,  or  that  in  contact  with  the  wood,  the 
cortical  layer.  The  epidermis  is  a  thin,  transparent,  tough  membrane;  when 
rubbed  off  it  is  gradually  reproduced,  and  in  some  trees  it  cracks  and  decays,  and 
a  fresh  epidermis  is  formed,  pushing  outward  the  old  ;  hence  the  reason  why  so 
many  aged  trees  have  a  rough  surface.  The  parenchyma  is  tender,  succulent, 
and  of  a  dark  green.  The  cortical  layer,  or  liher,  consists  of  thin  membranes  en- 
circling each  other,  and  these  seem  to  increase  with  the  age  of  the  plant.  The 
liber,  or  inner  bark,  is  known  by  its  whiteness,  great  flexibility,  toughness,  and 
durability ;  the  fibres  in  its  structure  are  ligneous  tubes.  It  is  the  part  of  the  stem 
through  which  the  juices  descend,  and  the  organ  in  which  the  generative  sap,  from 
whence  all  the  other  parts  originate,  is  received  from  the  leaves.  The  bark,  in  its 
interstices,  is  formed  of  cells,  which  are  filled  with  juices  of  varying  qualities; 
some,  like  that  of  the  oak,  remarkable  for  their  astringency ;  others,  like  the  cin- 
namon, abounding  with  an  essential  oil ;  others,  as  the  Jesuits'  bark,  containing  an 
alkali ;  some  contain  mucilaginous,  and  many  resinous  substances. 

Base,  the  stem-end  of  an  apple.    (See  Apple.) 

Basin,  the  concavity,  or  depression  of  the  end  opposite  the  stem.  The  basin 
may  be  deep  or  shallow,  broad  or  narrow.    (See  Fig.  129.) 

Biennial,  existing  two  years,  or  requiring  two  seasons  to  mature  ;  or  producing 
fruit  once  in  two  seasons. 


Fig.  139. 


Bivalved,  containmg  two 
valves. 

Blotched,  covered  with 
different  shades,  which 
commence  and  disappear 
abruptly,  without  any  reg- 
ularity or  order,  over  the 
surface. 

Bloom,  a  delicate,  pow- 
dery coating  on  the  surface 
of  fruit.  It  is  of  various 
colors,  as  per  the  fruit. 

Blossom.  An  apple-blos- 
som having  only  white  pet- 
als is  no  more  beautiful 
than  a  white  rose ;  but  an 
apple-blossom  of  many  col- 
ors is  a  flower  of  exquisite 
beauty.    By  the  aid  of  tho 

accompanying  diagrams,  any  person  of  only  common-school  education  may  soon 

gain  a  thorough  botanical  knowledge  of  the 

apple.    The  chief  parts  of  an  apple-blossom 

consist  of  the  calyx,  corolla,  pistils,  stamens, 

and  peduncle.    All  these,  taken  collectively, 

constitute  the  flower,  or  blossom.     Five  of 

the  central  organs  are  pistils.     (See  Pistils.) 

The  fine,  thread-like  organs  are  stamens.    The 

five  sections,  or  separate  leaves  of  the  corolla, 

are  the  petals.    The  green  segments  of  leaves 

beneath  the  petals  are  denominated  sepals. 

By  cutting  an  apple-blossom  in  two  equal 

jmrts,  one  can  see,  with  the  naked  eye,  at  the 

bottom  of  the  corolla,  the  miniature  apple. 

By  examining  a  perfect  apple,  we  can  see  the 

five  divisions  of  the  dried-vip  calyx  at  the 

apex,  or  crown  of  the  fruit.    Every  apple-blos- 


Two  apple-blossoms. 


A  single  apple-blossom. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  POMOLOGY. 


321 


som  is  a  self-fertilizer.  When  the  anthers  on  the  ends  of  the  stamens  burst,  some 
of  the  pollen  from  them  will  be  scattered  on  the  stigmas  of  the  pistils,  the  surfaces 
of  which  are  covered  with  a  delicate  adhesive  liquid,  which  absorbs  the  pollen. 
Were  it  not  for  this  process,  no  fruit  would  be  perfected.  Were  the  stamens  de- 
stroyed before  the  anthers  burst  and  scatter  the  pollen,  every  apple-tree  and  pear- 
tree  would  be  destitute  of  fruit  The  anthers  do  not  burst  until  after  the  flowers 
are  in  full  bloom. 

Buds.  There  are  five  or  more  distinct  names  given  to  different  kinds  of  buds ; 
namely,  ./fotoer-buds,  ^ea/-buds,  and  //-m'^buds,  which  contain  both  the  flower  and 
the  fruit,  the  axillary  buds,  and  terminal  buds.  Sometimes  the  flower-bud  and  the 
fruit-bud  are  identical,  as  in  the  apple  and  some  other  kinds  of  fruit.  Every  person 
who  is  permitted  to  have  any  thing  to  do  with  any  kind  of  fruit-trees  should  be 
taught  the  difl'erence  between  leaf-buds  and  fruit-buds  ;  "and  such  persons  should 
have  a  lively  understanding  of  the  eminent  practical  importance  of  protecting 
the  fruit-buds  when  the  fruit  is  being  gathered.  The  buds  that  are  formed  this 
year  on  apple-trees  must  produce  the  crop  the  next  season.  Adventitious  Buda 
are  frequently  spoken  of.  These  are  new  buds  put  forth  by  the  tree  near  the 
stub-end  of  a  branch  that  has  been  cut  off".  Such  buds  appear  at  the  ends  of  roots 
that  have  been  mutilated  and  cut  off  smoothly.  All  the  buds  of  a  branch  do  not 
expand  every  year,  especially  if  the  growing  tree  does  not  stand  in  rich  soil.  A 
portion  of  the  buds  often  remain  nearly  dormant,  so  that  if  those  on  each  side  of 
them  should  be  destroyed,  those  comparatively  dormant  will  expand.  When  it 
is  desirable  to  have  buds  developed  early  in  the  summer  for  the  purpose  of  inoc- 
ulation, let  the 

terminal  bud  be  ^'^•^''^• 

pinched  back 
as  often  as  it 
starts.  By  this 
means  the  side 
buds  will  be 
fully  developed 
in  the  former 
part  of  the 
growing  sea- 
son ;  where- 
as, were  the 
branches  per- 
mitted to  in- 
crease in  length,  ^ 
the  side  buds 
would  scarcely 
be  developed  at 
the  end  of  the 
year.  Branch- 
es of  some  kinds  of  apple-trees  are  often  inclined  to  grow  long  and  slender,  hav- 
ing very  few  small  fruit-buds.  By  tying  small  ones  in  a  large  kn^t,  like  Fig.  141, 
fruit-buds  will  develop  where  the  branch  is  bent.  Other  branches  may  be  doubled 
backward  towards  the  middle  of  the  tree-top,  and  tied  in  any  desirable  position 
for  the  purpose  of  promoting  fruitfulness. 

Calyx,  the  most  exterior  integument  in  the  very  bottom  of  the  basin  of  an  ap- 
ple.    Some  apples  have  a  large,  and  others  a  small  calyx.     (See  Apple.) 

Cambium,  or  Cambium-layer,  is  the  name  that  has  hitherto  been  given  to  the 
descending  sap  which  forms  the  mucilaginous  annual  deposit  between  the  inner 
bark  of  the  apple-tree  and  the  outer  ring  of  wood.  So  long  as  this  material  is 
liquid,  semi-liquid,  or  plastic,  it  is  called  cambium.  After  it  has  solidified,  even 
while  it  remains  soft,  it  is  spoken  of  as  the  cambixim-layer.    The  cambium  not 

14* 


Promoting  fructification  by  bending  the  branches. 


325 


THE  APPLE  CULTUMIST. 


Fig.  142. 


A  chrysalis. 


A  small  clon. 


only  forms  a  new  layer  or  ring  of  wood  beneath  the  bark  annually,  but  it  renews 
the  inner  surface  of  the  bark  also.  The  words  cambium  and  alburnum  are  fre- 
quently employed  as  if  they  were  of  the  same  signification.  The  two  substances 
are  about  as  nearly  alike  as  ice  and  water. 

Capsule,  a  dry,  hollow  seed-vessel,  usually  opening  by  regular  valves  and  defi- 
nite seams.    It  answers  to  the  carpels  of  an  apple. 
Carnose,  fleshy,  more  firm  than  pulpy. 

Carpels.  The  carpels  of  the  apple  and  pear  consist  of  the  seed-receptacles  at  the 
core,  of  which  there  are  usually  five,  although  botanists  fix  the  number  at  two  to 
five.  They  also  assert  that  the  pear  {Pgrus  communis)  has  two  to  five  carpels. 
When  thinning  the  fruit  of  some  of  our  own  trees,  we  cut  a  few  green 
pears  into  thin,  transverse  sections  through  the  core,  and  found  one 
pear  having  six  perfect  carpels,  each  containing  two  seeds. 

Cavity,  the  depression  of  the  centre  of  the  stem-end  of  an  apple, 
opposite  the  basin.  The  epithets  broad,  narroiv,  deep,  shallow,  acute, 
and  acuminate  are  frequently  employed  in  connection  with  the  word 
cavity  when  describing  apples. 

Chrysalis,  one  of  the  forms  of  insects,  like  Fig.  142,  from  which 
they  emerge  with  wings.    It  is  more  proper  to  speak  of  an  insect 
in  the  pupa  state,  than  to  call  it  a  chrysalis. 
dons,  twigs,  or  shoots,  signify  portions  of  branches  after  one  end  has  been  fitted 
for  the  cleft  in  the  stock.    Then  it 

also  denotes  the  entire  portion  of  ^'^'  ^'^^^ 

a  branch  of  the  preceding  sea- 
son's growth.  Cions  are  also  called 
grafts,  which  can  not  properly  be 
called  cions.  Fig.  143  represents  a 
cion  with  one  end  sloped  off,  so  that  the  name  of  the  variety  may  be  written  on 
pj^  j^    .  it  with  a  lead  -  pencil.    Fig.  144 

shows  a  bundle,  as  cions  appear 
very  soon  after  they  have  been 
cut  from  a  tree.  Such  bundles 
should  be  buried  in  moist  sand 
in  a  cellar,  or  in  a  sandy  knoll, 
during  cold  weather.  Fig.  145 
represents  the  manner  of  wrapping  up  a  few  cions  with  damp  moss,  in  oiled  pa- 
per, when  they  are  to  be  sent  by  mail.  Fig  145, 

Cleft,  a  division  between  parts  less  than 
half-way  to  the  base ;  also  the  crack  that 
is  formed  in  the  end  of  a  limb,  or  stock, 
for  receiving  a  cion. 

Collar,  that  part  of  the  body  or  stem 
of  an  apple-tree  near  the  surface  of  the  ground.    Some  trees  produce  a  broad  and 
thick  ridge  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  called  the  collar  of  the  tree. 

Concentric.    Concentric  circles,  or  layers,  are  the  rings  of  wood,  one  of  which  is 
formed  annually,  around  the  body  of  every  growing  tree  beneath  the  bark. 

Conical,  those  apples  that  are  more  or  less  tapering,  somewhat  like  a  cone,  from 
the  base  to  the  apex.    (See  Fig.  133.) 
Cordate,  heart-shaped,  with  the  side-lobes  rounded. 

Corolla,  the  delicate  inner  covering  of  a  flower  between  the  calyx  and  stamens, 
usually  colored,  surrounding  the  parts  of  fructification,  and  composed  of  one  or 
more  flower-leaves,  denominated  petals. 
Cortical,  belonging  to  the  bark  of  a  tree. 

Corymb,  a  mode  of  flowering  ;  a  sort  of  flat  or  convex  flower-cluster. 
Cotyledons,  the  seed-lobes,  or  fleshy  portion  of  a  kernel.    A  cotyledon  involves 
and  nourishes  the  embryo  plant,  and  then  perishes.    Some  seeds,  like  beans, 


A  bundle  of  cions  labelled. 


A  bundle  of  cions  to  be  sent  by  mail. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  POMOLOGY. 


323 


Fig.  146. 


Diverging  braiielies. 


pumpkin-seeds,  apple-seeds,  and  many  others,  have  two  lobes,  and  are  denomi- 
nated dicotyledotioiis,  because  the  two  lobes  of  the  seeds  split  apart  during  the 
process  of  germination ;  and  each  lobe  appears  on  the  end  of  the  stem  as  a  leaf. 
The  lobes  of  the  dicotyledonous  seeds  are  flat  on  the  inside,  and  convex  on  the 
outside.    (See  Fig.  1,  p.  21.) 

Crab-apple  {Pyrus  coronaria),  is  a  wild  apple-tree  that  produces  small  apples, 
very  hard  and  exceedingly  sour.  The  color  of  the  fruit  is  usually  a  yellowish- 
white.  The  Crab-apple  of  Siberia,  or  the  Siberian  Crab-apple,  is  a  hardy  variety 
that  may  be  cultivated  in  almost  any  locality,  fior  the  great  beauty  of  the  fruit,  if 
for  no  other  purpose.  In  some  instances  we  have  known  this 
variety  cultivated  for  market. 

Crenate.    This  term  is  applied  to  leaves  the  edges  of  which  are 
scalloped  into  rounded  teeth. 
Crown,  the  apex  of  an  apple  opposite  the  stem.    (See  Apple.) 
Curculio,  a  general  term  for  coleopterous  insects,  the  larvae  of 
which  destroy  fruit.    (See  illustration,  p.  238.) 

Deciduous,  falling  at  certain  periods,  like  the  leaves  of  apple- 
trees,  which  fall  every  autumn. 

Disk,  the  face,  or  surface,  of  a  leaf;  also,  the  face,  or  central 
part  of  a  head  of  compound  flowers. 

Diverging,  applies  to  such  branches  of  a  tree  as  grow  at  about 
an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  from  the  stem.  The  Ribston  Pip- 
pin-tree furnishes  an  example  of  diverging  branches.  Fig.  146 
shows  diverging  branches. 

Dotted,  covered  with  dots  that  are  distinct  and  separate  from 
each  other. 
Doucin  (erroneously  Doucain),  signifies  a  variety  of  the  dwarf- 
apple.    The  Doucin  stock  forms  an  apple-tree  larger  than  the  Paradise  stock, 
but  not  so  large  as  the  common  standard  apple-trees.    Dwarf  apple-trees  are  pro- 
duced by  grafting  the  common  apple  into  Doucin  stocks,  or  into  Paradise  stocks. 
Drooping,  when  the  limbs  of  a  tree  fall  below  a  horizontal  line. 
Drupe,  stone  fruit,  a  fieehy,  spongy  pericarp,  like  a  plum,  inclosing  a  hard  pit. 
Emdryo.    The  embryo  of  an  apple-seed  consists  of  the  rudimentary  plantiet, 
caulicle,  radicle,  or  plumule.    The  plumule  shoots  upward,  and  the  radicle  down- 
ward.   Fig.  147  is  a 
section  of  a  seed  of 
a  peony,  in  which  is 
shown  a  small  em- 
bryo.       Fig.  148 
the  same  embryo  de- 
tached   and    magni- 
fied.     Fig.  149  is   a 
section  of  a  seed  of 
barberry,      showing 
the   embryo   in   the 
middle  of  the  albu- 
men.   Fig.  150  is  the 
embryo       separated 
from    the    albumen. 
Fig.  151  is  a  section 
of  potato-seed  show- 
ing the  embryo  coil- 
ed in  the  albumen.    Fig.  152  represents  the  embryo  separated  from  the  albumen. 
Fig.  153  shows  a  section  of  the  Four-o'clock  with  the  embryo  coiled  around  the 
outside  of  the  albumen.    Fig.  154  is  the  embryo  detached.    The  foregoing  illus- 
trations are  copied,  by  permission,  from  "Gray's  Botany." 


Fig.  147. 


Fie.  149. 


Fig. 151. 


Fig.  153. 


324  THE  APPLE  CULTURIHT. 

Endocarp,  the  inner  coating  of  the  brown  integument  of  an  apple-seed.  It  also 
signifies  the  entire  brown  shell  of  an  apple-seed.  If  we  speak  with  scientific  ac- 
curacy, the  outer  coat  of  the  brown  shell  of  an  apple-seed  signifies  the  exocarp, 
and  the  inner  lining  the  endocarp.  Endocarp  signifies,  also,  the  putamen,  or  the 
brown  shell  of  a  chestnut,  and  the  stony  shell  of  a  peach,  plum,  and  cherry. 
Epicarp,  the  skin  or  peeling  of  an  apple,  which  is  a  kind  of  epidermis. 
Epidermis.  The  epidermis  of  a  person's  skin  is  the  thin,  insensible  portion  of 
the  cuticle— the  scarf-skin  ;  also  the  dry,  shaggy  part  of  the  bark  of  an  apple-tree. 
The  epidermis  covers  every  part  ©f  the  tree  that  is  exposed  to  the  air,  except  the 
stigma  of  the  blossom  and  the  spongioles  of  the  roots.  The  epidermis  of  the  ap- 
ple-leaf consists  of  the  transparent  skin,  which  seems  like  an  elastic  film  of  glass 
>'pread  evenly  over  the  surface.  The  very  thin  external  covering  of  apples  is  the 
epidermis  of  the  fruit. 

Fig.  155.  Epiphyte,  or  Epiphytes,  plants  which  grow  on  other  plants,  but  which 
I  I  do  not  penetrate  the  living  substance  of  the  plant  that  supports  them,  to 
.  I  absorb  any  of  the  juices.    Lichens  or  moss  on  the  bark  of  an  old  apple- 

\    I  I    tree  may  properly  be  called  Epiphytes,  as  the  growing  parts  are  supported 
Ml  t    by  the  dead  bark  of  the  tree. 

Erect,  when  applied  to  shoots  or  branches  of  apple-trees,  has  refer- 
ence to  all  those  limbs  shooting  upward,  between  an  angle  of  forty-five 
degrees  and  a  perpendicular  at  the  central  stem  of  the  tree.  The  branch- 
es of  many  varieties  of  pears,  and  some  apples,  grow  erect.  Fig.  166 
shows  erect  branches. 

Exogenous,  growing  on  the  outside,  like  an  apple-tree,  by  adding  an- 
nually one  concentric  layer  of  new  wood  beneath  the  bark. 

Fecundation,  impregnation ;  the  fertilization  of  a  blossom  by  the  union 
of  the  pollen  with  the  stigma. 
Filament,  that  part  of  the  stamen  of  a  flower  which  supports  the  anther. 
^»4i»a.       Fissure,  a  slit,  crack,  or  narrow  opening, 

Kreot  Foliage,  the  leaves  of  a  tree,  or  the  leaves  and  blossoms.  Many  reputed- 
branches.   jy  intelligent  poraologists  say/oilage  for  foliage. 

Free,  not  adhering  firmly  to  another  part,  as  a  peach  is  called  a  '-free-stone" 
when  it  is  not  a  "  cling-stone,"  adhering  firmly  to  the  pit. 

Free-stocks.  Apple-seedlings  are  denominated  free,  or  free-stocks,  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  dwarf,  or  Doucin,  and  Paradise  stocks,  and  from  trees  that  have 
been  produced  by  root-grafting.  In  other  words,  an  apple-tree  that  sprang  from 
a  seed  is  a  free-stock.    If  produced  in  any  other  way,  it  in  not  a  free-stock. 

Fructification,  the  flower  and  fruit,  with  their  parts,  consisting  of  the  calyx  or 
empalement,  the  corolla  or  petals,  the  stamens  and  the  pistil,  which  belong  to  the 
flower,  the  pericarp  and  seeds,  which  pertain  to  the  fruit,  and  the  receptacle,  or 
base,  on  which  other  parts  are  seated :  the  act  of  fructifying,  or  maturing  fruit. 

Fruit.  In  the  common  acceptation  of  the  term,  the  word  fruit  means  the  edible 
portion  of  apples,  pears — the  fleshy  part,  or  the  pericarp.  But,  botanically  speak- 
ing, fruit  signifies  the  seeds  of  a  turnip,  the  seeds  of  an  apple,  and  the  kernels  con- 
taining the  germ  within  the  hard  shell  or  pit  of  a  peach  or  plum.  The  fruit  of 
the  potato  consists  of  the  small  seeds  in  the  balls  which  grow  on  the  extremities 
of  the  vines.    The  fruit  of  the  chestnut-tree  is  the  chestnuts. 

Genus,  a  group  of  species  which  agree  with  each  other  in  the  structure  of  essen- 
tial characters  of  the  fiower  and  the  fruit.  Trees  that  agree  in  their  flower  and 
fruit,  like  the  apple  and  the  pear,  are  of  the  same  genus,  but  of  different  species. 
The  apple-tree,  for  example,  and  pear-tree  both  belong  to  the  genus  Pyrus;  but 
the  apple  belongs  to  the  species  Malus,  and  the  pear  to  the  species  Communis. 

Germ,  the  growing  part  of  the  bud  :  a  point ;  the  miniature  apple  at  the  base  of 
a  blossom ;  sometimes  called  an  embryo ;  the  rudiment  of  an  apple-tree  in  the 
seed  of  an  apple,  m  an  embryotic  state.     (See  Embryo.) 
Germination,  the  sprouting  and  flrst  growth  of  a  seed  before  the  stem  has  reach- 


QE^EliAL  FMINCIPLEIS  OF  POMOLOGY. 


325 


ed  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  formed  leaves.  After  leaves  have  been  formed, 
we  say  the  plant  vegetates,  or  grows. 

Graft,  or  Grafts.  A  graft  is  often  called  a  don,  and  a  cion  a  graft.  But  strictly 
speaking,  a  graft  is  the  cion  after  it  is  iuserted  in  the  stock— the  living,  growing, 
partially,  or  fully-developed  cion.     (See  Cion.) 

Habitat,  the  natural  abode  of  any  animal,  or  that  peculiar  locality  of  plants  or 
trees  where  they  grow  spontaneously. 

Heeling-in,  or  Laying-in-by-the-heels,  placing  the  roots  of  trees  in  a  trench  or 
hole,  and  covering  them  temporarily,  while  the  stems  of  the  trees  are  erect  or  in- 
clined. 

Hilum,  the  eye  of  a  potato  or  point  of  an  apple-seed.    (See  Embryo.) 

Humus,  vegetable  mould  formed  by  the  thorough  decomposition  of  vegetable 
matter  in  the  soil.  It  is  usually  of  a  black  color,  and  very  fine,  like  dark-colored 
ashes. 

Hybrid,  when  applied  to  animals,  signifies  a  mule.  Among  plants  and  vegeta- 
bles, a  hybrid  is  the  product  of  the  union  of  two  varieties  of  different  species  of 
trees,  vines,  or  vegetables.  A  hybrid,  also,  is  the  product  of  the  union  of  two  in- 
dividuals of  different  species ;  while  a  cross  is  the  mixture  of  two  varieties.  Many 
intelligent  persons  employ  the  terms  hybridize  or  hybridizing  in  the  sense  of  cross- 
ing, and  vice  versa,  which  is  incor- 


rect. The  product  of  the  union  of 
two  varieties  of  strawberries  is  a 
cross— not  a  hybrid.  The  product  of 
an  apple  and  a  pear-blossom  would 
be  a  hybrid. 

Insertion,  the  apex  of  the  stalk  or 
stem  of  an  apple  or  of  any  other  fruit. 

Larva,  an  insect  in  the  caterpillar 
state ;  the  first  stage  after  the  egg  in 
the  metamorphoses  of  insects,  pre- 
ceding the  pupa,  or  chrysalis,  and 
perfect  insect.  The  word  larva  is 
singular,  and  larvce  is  plural.  (See 
p.  238,  a.) 

Leaf ,  or  Leaves.  Leaves  are  usually 
the  foliage  of  a  tree.  Sometimes  the 
foliage  embraces  both  leaves  and 
blossoms.  The  accompanying  illus- 
tration of  an  apple-leaf  (Pig.  156)  will 
furnish  something  of  an  idea  of  the 
wonderful  wisdom  there  is  in  a  leaf. 
We  look  at  a  leaf  smilingly,  and  ex- 
claim: "Well,  there  it  is!  It's  no- 
thing but  a  leaf  I  What  can  be  said 
about  a  leaf?"  Let  us  examine  the 
various  parts  closely,  and  we  shnll 
doubtless  meet  with  some  practical 
suggestions  which  will  enable  tillers 
of  the  soil  to  produce  better  apples 
and  more  bountiful  crops.  The  blade 
or  lamina  of  a  leaf  embraces  the  en- 
tire leaf,  except  the  stem.  The  upper 
end  is  the  apex  of  the  leaf;  and  B 
is  the  base.  An  apple-leaf  is  denomi- 
nated a  simple  leaf,  as  there  is  but  one 
on  the  petiole.    The  petioles  of  some 


Fig.  156. 


M 


4W 


[ 


The  principal  pans  of  an  apple-tree  leaf. 


326 


THE  APPLE  CULTURIST. 


trees,  like  the  yellow  locust,  have  many  leaves  on  each  petiole,  and  are  hen^ce  called 
compound  leaves.  M  represents  the  mid-vein,  which  is  the  principal  prolongation  of 
the  petiole,  P.  The  old  name  of  the  mid-vein  is  mid-rib.  The  primary  branches, 
V,  V,  sent  oflf  from  the  mid-vein,  are  denominated  veinlets ;  and  the  secondary 
branches,  issuing  from  them  are  called  veinulets.  The  leaves  of  the  apple-tree  are 
serrate,  which  see.  In  many  apple-leaves  the  veinlets  are  opposite ;  and  in  others 
on  the  same  tree,  the  veinlets  will  be  alternate.  The  usual  form  of  apple-leaves  is 
elliptical,  ovate,  and  frequently  oblong-ovate.  They  are  often  obieular.  The  apex 
of  an  apple-leaf  is  often  acute,  or  short  acuminate.  The  upper  side  of  apple-leaves 
is  smooth,  or  glabrous.  The  under  side  is  pubescent,  or  tomentose.  The  leaves 
of  an  apple-tree  are  both  the  lungs  and  the  organs  of  digestion.  No  tree  can  exist 
any  considerable  length  of  time,  during  the  growing  season,  without  leaves.  The 
mid-vein,  veinlets,  and  veinulets,  constitute  the  frame-work  of  the  leaf,  which  is 
covered  by  the  parenchyma,  or  cellular  tissue.  They  are  all  conveyers  of  the  vital 
fluid  of  a  tree,  just  as  the  veins  of  the  body  of  an  animal  convey  the  blood  away 


Fig.  157. 


A  highly-magnified  section  of  a  leaf. 

from  and  back  to  the  heart.  The  parenchyma  of  the  leaves  of  an  apple-tree  is 
covered  with  a  delicate  varnish,  which  is  impervious  to  water,  as  we  may  readily 
perceive  by  sprinkling  water  on  the  surface.  When  a  tree  is  growing  where  there 
is  a  large  amount  of  potash  and  silica  in  the  soil,  the  leaves  will  be  covered  with 
a  much  thicker  coat  of  this  vegetable  varnish  than  if  potash  and  silica  were  scarce. 
Where  these  ingredients  have  nearly  all  been  exhausted  from  the  soil,  the  leaves 
of  a  tree  will  often  be  sickly,  thin,  and  liable  to  be  attacked  by  disease,  simply  be- 
cause the  roots  can  not  find  a  supply  of  silica  and  potash  to  produce  a  heavy  coat 
of  varnish  over  the  surface  of  both  the  leaves  and  fruit.  Hence,  when  the  spores 
of  fungi  come  floating  along  in  the  air,  the  minute  particles  readily  adhere  to  the 
leaves,  and  soon  destroy  them.  Glass-makers  employ  silica,  sand,  and  potash 
to  manufacture  glass.  Apple-trees  and  other  trees  need  a  liberal  supply  of  these 
materials  to  form  a  liquid  similar  to  glass,  to  spread  over  the  surface  of  leaves  and 
fruit,  to  fortify  every  organ  and  tissue  against  the  attacks  of  fungi.  Let  wood- 
ashes  and  sand  be  scattered  round  about  apple-trees  in  great  abundance,  and  the 
leaves  will  be  of  a  dark-green  color,  tough  like  india-rubber,  and  the  fruit  will  be 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  POMOLOGY.  327 

free  from  rust  and  scabs.  Fig.  157,  given  on  the  preceding  page,  is  a  fair  repre- 
sentation of  a  section  of  a  leaf  magnified  to  show  the  air-chambers  and  the 
breathing-pores.  Professor  Gray  states,  in  his  "Botany,"  in  connection  with  a 
similar  figure,  that  in  one  square  inch  of  the  under  side  of  an  apple-leaf  there  are 
24,000  breathing-pores. 

Lobe,  the  division  or  segment  of  a  petal  or  leaf;  the  free  portion  of  a  gamopetal- 
ous  corolla ;  the  cotyledons  of  a  seed. 

Lmigitudinal,  or  Longitudinally,  from  pole  to  pole,  or  from  stem  to  calyx. 

Malus,  the  scientific  name  of  the  species  of  trees  to  which  the  apple  belongs. 

Marbled,  covered  with  wide,  faint,  waving,  or  irregular  stripes. 

Melting,  becoming  nearly  a  liquid  and  delicate  pulp  under  a  slight  pressure,  or 
when  taken  in  the  mouth,  Hke  a  soft  peach. 

Mid-rib,  the  main,  central  nerve  of  a  leaf,  apparently  the  continuation  of  the 
petiole  to  the  apex  of  the  leaf.    (See  Leaf.) 

Mottled.    When  an  apple  is  covered  with  dots  that  appear  to  flow  together. 

Nerves,  in  leaves,  rib-like  fibres  extending  from  the  base  towards  the  apex. 

Oblate.    An  apple  is  of  an  oblate  foi-m  when  it  is  flattened,  like  Fig.  132,  p.  319. 

Oblate-conical.  The  Hawthornden,  Rhode  Island  Greening,  and  some  other  ap- 
ples, are  said  to  be  of  an  oblate-conical  form  (Fig.  135,  p.  319). 

Oblong,  applying  to  such  apples  as  Kaighn's  Spitzenberg,  having  nearly  parallel 
sides,  and  longer  from  stem  to  calyx  than  from  side  to  side  (Fig.  134,  p.  319). 

Oblong-conical,  applying  to  an  apple  that  is  much  longer  from  stem  to  calyx 
than  from  side  to  side,  having  the  sides  somewhat  conical,  like  the  Yellow  Bell- 
flower  apple,  p.  8. 

Oblong-ovate,  an  apple  more  of  the  form  of  an  egg  than  a  cone ;  similar  to  the 
Black  Gilliflower. 

Obovate,  inversely  ovate,  having  the  larger  end  at  the  apex  of  the  fruit. 

Obtuse,  having  rather  blunt  ends,  or  rounded  off"  rather  abruptly ;  not  sharp. 

Obtusely,  in  a  rounded  and  blunt  manner.  The  apple-leaf  is  obtusely  toothed 
on  the  edge. 

Ovary,  the  hollow  portion  at  the  base  of  the  pistil,  containing  the  ovulee,  or 
bodies^destined  to  become  seeds. 

Ovate,  somewhat  like  an  egg.  An  apple  of  an  ovate  form  is  diffterent  from  a 
conical  form,  in  this  respect,  that  the  ovate  is  not  tapered  so  much  as  an  apple  of  a 
conical  form.  The  Esopus  Spitzenberg,  Gilliflower,  Porter,  and  some  other  varie- 
ties of  apples,  are  ovate. 

Ovules,  the  rudiments  of  future  seeds  contained  in  the  ovary,  or  young  fruit. 

Paradise  Apple,  a  small  dwarf  tree,  scarcely  larger  than  the  currant-bush.  When 
any  of  the  varieties  of  the  common  apple  are  worked  on  the  Paradise  stock,  a 
dwarf  apple-tree  is  produced. 

Parenchyma,  the  soft  cellular  tissue  of  leaves  which  covers  the  frame-work— the 
mid-vein,  veinlets,  and  veinulets.    (See  Leaf.) 

Pedicel,  a  partial  peduncle ;  the  ultimate  branch,  as  in  a  compound  inflorescence. 

Peduncle,  the  stem  of  the  apple- blossom,  and  also  the  stem  of  the  apple  itself. 
The  peduncle,  in  some  kinds  of  fruit,  supports  several  pedicels,  each  of  which 
bears  a  specimen  of  fruit.  The  stem  of  an  apple  has  a  base,  and  may  be  long  or 
short,  curved  or  straight,  slender  or  thick,  and  it  is  sometimes  knobby  and  fleshy. 
The  stem  characters  are  not  very  reliable. 

Pentapetalous,  having  five  petals,  like  the  apple-blossom. 

Perennial,  living  for  a  longer  period  than  two  or  three  years— like  trees,  grass, 
grape-vines,  and  shrubs. 

Pericarp.  The  pericarp  of  an  apple  consists  of  all  the  parts  outside  of  the  seeds. 
That  of  a  berry  embraces  the  pulpy  portion.  In  some  fruits,  the  pericarp  consists 
of  the  epicarp,  endocarp,  and  the  sarcocarp.  The  word  pericarp  is  derived  from 
two  Greek  words^peri,  around,  and  karpos,  the  seed  or  fruit. 

Petals,  the  delicate  leaves  of  a  flower  or  blossom.    (See  Blossom.) 


328 


THE  APPLE  CULTUBIST. 


Fij?.  158. 


»-■«*' 


Petiole,  a  foot-stalk  or  leaf-stem ;  not  a  pendnncle,  which  is  a  frnit-stem. 
Pistil,  the  central  organ  of  a  fertile  flower,  consisting  usually  of  an 


ovary,  o ;  the  style,  a;  and  the  stigma,  a.    Some  plants  have  only  one 
pistil.    The  rose  has  numerous  pistils.    The  embryo  apple  may  be  seen 
at  0,  in  a  perfect  apple-blossom. 
Pistillate,  those  flowers  that  have  pistils,  but  no  stamens. 
Plumule,  the  young  and  tender  stem  of  the  future  tree,  when  bear- 
ing two  or  more  leaves.    (See  Fig.  3,  p.  22.) 

Pollen,  the  fine  fertilizing  powder  contained  in  the  anthers  of  a  flow- 
er, without  which  a  tree  would  produce  no  fruit,  and  plants  no  crops. 
We  once  cut  off  all  the  tassels  of  a  hill  of  Indian  coru,  which  grew  alone 
In  the  yard  of  our  city  residence,  before  the  tassel  had  grown  above  the 
leaves  of  the  com,  and  no  corn  grew  on  the  cobs.  If  the  stamens  of 
apple-blossoms  could  be  removed  before  the  anthers  burst,  to  allow  the 
pollen  to  fall  on  the  stigmas  of  the  pistils,  there  would  be  no  apples. 
The  figures  herewith  given  represent  magnified  views  of  pollen-grains, 
copied,  by  permission,  from  "Gray's  Botany."  Fig.  159  is  a 
grain  of  the  curious  compound  pollen  of  the  pine.  Fig.  160 
(see  below)  is  a  pollen-grain  from  the  flower  of  an  Evening 
Primrose.  Fig.  161  is  a  grain  from  the  Enchanter's  Night- 
shade. Fig.  162,  a  pollen-grain  of  the  Kalmai  flower.  Fig. 
^"^S  163,  a  pollen-grain  of  the  Succory.  Fig.  164  represents  the 
pollen  of  Wild  Balsam  Apple,  which  nearly  resembles  the  pol- 
len of  the  common  apple  when  magnified.  The  pollen  of  certain  plants, 
when  magnified,  possesses  a  more  curious  form  than  any  of  the  accompanying  fig- 


Fig.  1.^9. 


Fig.  160. 


Fip.  163. 


Fig.  161. 


f"  v\  ures.  Professional  botanists  can  often  determine,  by  an  examina- 
tion of  the  form  of  the  pollen  grains,  to  what  family  the  plant  be- 
longed, without  seeing  even  the  blossom  that  produced  the  pollen. 

Pome,  a  fleshy,  pulpy  pericarp,  containing  one  or  more  capsules,  or  carpels ;  as  an 
apple  or  pear.    The  word  pome  is  a  term  applied  to  apples  and  many  other  fruits. 

Pomology,  the  science  and  art  of  propagating  fruit-trees  and  cultivating  fruit. 

Primary,  first  in  order  of  time  or  importance,  as  the  primary  roots  of  a  plant, 
which  are  produced  when  the  kernel  first  vegetates ;  ojjposed  to  the  system  of 
secondary  roots  of  a  plant  or  tree,  which  appear  near  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Pubescent,  covered  with  very  fine,  soft  hairs.  The  apple-leaf  is  pubescent  above. 
(See  Tomentose.) 

Pulp,  a  soft,  fleshy,  juicy  mass.  It  is  often  applied  to  the  flesh  of  ripe  fruit. 
Then  it  signifies  crushed  fruit  or  vegetables. 

Pungent,  sharp-pointed,  or  prickly  at  the  apex ;  also  acrid. 

Pupa,  an  insect  in  the  third,  or  next  to  the  last  state  of  existence,  during  which 
period  it  has  not  the  power  of  locomotion  ;  and  when  it  takes  no  food.  An  in- 
sect in  the  chrysalis  state.    {See  Chrysalis.) 

Putamen,  the  hard  shell  of  a  walnut,  or  butternut,  the  brown  shell  of  a  chestnut, 
the  brovra  shell  of  an  apple-seed  or  pear-seed,  the  stone  of  a  peach,  plum,  or  cherry. 

Pyramidal,  tapering  upward  from  the  base,  or  bilge,  to  the  top.  When  a  hedge 
is  sheared,  or  pruned  of  a  pyramidal  form,  the  sides  taper  upward  from  the  base, 
or  widest  part,  to  a  narrower  top.  But  when  a  tree  of  any  kind  is  pruned  or  sheared, 
the  top  above  the  bilge  is  more  of  a  conical  than  of  a  pyramidal  form. 

Pyriform,  largest  at  the  apex,  or  crown  of  a  fruit ;  shaped  like  a  pear. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  POMOLOGY.  329 

Pyrus,  the  scientific  name  of  the  gemis  of  trees  to  which  the  apple  and  pear  be- 
long, while  7nalits  is  the  species.  Hence  the  name  of  the  apple-tree— i^rt*«  malus. 
These  are  simply  Latin  names. 

Quincunx.     (See  this  explained  on  p.  74.) 
Radicle,  the  slender,  fibrous  branches  of  roots. 

Ramification,  the  profuse  branching  and  subdivision  of  branches  of  roots  or 
boughs. 

Rhizovia,  subterranean  stems,  or  creeping  roots. 

Ribbed,  having  more  or  less  ribs,  or  longitudinal  ridges,  running  in  parallel  lines 
around  fruit.    (See  Fig.  136,  p.  319.) 

Rigid,  stiff,  not  pliable,  inflexible. 

Root,  or  Roots.  A  root  is  an  underground  stem  of  a  plant,  shrub,  or  tree,  which 
fixes  itself  in  the  ground,  and  serves  to  support  the  plant  in  an  erect  position. 
The  roots  which  first  appear  from  an  apple-seed  are  denominated  seminal  or  pri- 
mary roots.  Those  that  are  sent  out  from  an  apple-stem  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  in  a  horizontal  position,  are  the  coronal,  or  secondary  roots.  A  radicle  is 
the  first  root  of  a  kernel.  Then  the  radicles  of  an  apple-tree  are  those  fine  hair- 
like roots  which  are  sent  out  every  growing  season  from  the  main  roots  to  per- 
form the  oflace  oi  feeders  of  the  tree.  The  radicles  of  an  apple-tree  are  produced 
every  year,  and  decay  every  autumn,  like  the  leaves.  This  fact,  however,  is  con- 
troverted by  most  pomologists  of  the  present  age. 

Sarcocarp,  the  fleshy,  spongy,  corky,  or  coriaceous  part  of  the  fruit,  which  is 
covered  by  the  epicarp  (from  sarx,  flesh,  and  karpos,  fruit) ;  the  edible  portion  of 
the  apple. 

Seedling,  the  name  given  to  an  apple-tree  that  sprang  from  the  seed,  and  which 
has  never  been  grafted  or  inoculated ;  an  apple  produced  by  a  tree  that  has  never 
been  grafted. 

Segments,  the  divisions,  or  separate  portions  of  a  circle,  of  a  leaf,  or  cleft  of  the 
calyx  of  an  apple. 

Seminal,  pertaining  to  seed ;  rudimental ;  issuing  from  the  seed,  as  the  seminal 
roots  that  start  from  a  kernel  of  grain,  or  from  an  apple-seed. 

Sepals,  the  leaflets  beneath  the  petals  of  a  flower.  They  usually  inclose  the  bud, 
and  are  of  a  green  color. 

Septum,  or  Septa,  partitions  that  divide  the  interior  of  fruit. 

Serratures,  having  the  edge  or  margin  notched  somewhat  like  the  teeth  of  a 
saw ;  the  sharp  edges  of  the  segments  of  leaves.    (See  Leaf.) 

Sheath,  a  tubular,  membranaceous  expansion  of  a  plant  that  incloses  a  stem. 

Shoots,  the  extremities  of  growing  limbs  or  branches ;  particularly  the  part  that 
grew  the  preceding  year. 

Shrtib,  a  low  dwarf  tree  or  bush.  Correctly  speaking,  gooseberry-bushes  and 
currant-bushes  are  shrubs,  and  not  bushes.  Botanists  have  failed  to  designate 
the  line  of  deraarkation  between  trees  and  shrubs,  so  that  a  beginner  can  not  al- 
ways determine  which  is  a  tree  and  which  a  shrub. 

Sinms,  a  bay  ;  a  rounded  cavity  in  the  edge  of  a  petal  or  leaf. 

Spermoderm,  the  coarse  shell,  or  skin,  of  an  apple-seed,  surrounding  the  ker- 
nel. The  three  parts  of  the  spermoderm  consist  of  the  external  covering,  called 
the  testa,  or  cuticle,  corresponding  to  the  epicarp ;  the  cellular  tissue,  called  the 
mesosperm,  which  corresponds  to  the  sarcocarp  of  the  apple ;  and  the  thin  inner 
skin,  or  endosperm,  which  is  the  same  as  the  endocarp,  or  inside  skin  of  the  peri- 
carp. 

Splashed,  having  the  stripes  of  all  conceivable  sizes,  and  much  broken. 

Spongioles,  the  delicate,  soft,  and  sponge-like  extremities  of  roots  and  radi- 
cles. 

Spores,  or  Sporules,  the  analogues,  or  seminal  equivalents  of  seeds  in  cryptoga- 
mons  plants,  which  perform  the  functions  of  seeds. 

Spray,  the  numerous  small,  fine  twigs  on  the  ends  of  branches. 


330 


THE  APPLE   CULTURIST. 


Spreading  branches. 


Fruit-spurs. 


Fig.  165.  Spreading,   applied    to    the  Fig.iee. 

growth   of  branches  of  such 
trees  as  approach  a  horizontal 
direction,  as  shown  by  Fig.  165. 
The  Rhode  Island  Greening  ap- 
-..^^^    '^  y/    pie-tree  and  many  other  varie- 
^^\N  "yK^       ties  have  spreading  branches. 
^  ^^Jf       '  Sprouts  are  small,  tall,  and 

thrifty  branches  growing  on 
the  upper  side  of  limbs,  and 
sometimes  from  the  body  of 
an  apple-tree. 

Spurs  (Fruit  -  spurs),  short, 
stubbed  branches,  one  to  three 
inches  long  on  the  sides  of  the 
main  branches,  having  one  or 
more  fruit-buds  at  the  end. 
Fig.  166,  at  S  S,  represents  fruit-spurs.  At  B  is  a 
fruit-bud. 

Stained,  an  appearance  of  somewhat  lighter 
shade  than  an  apple  that  is  colored  or  blotched. 

Stamen,  or  Stamens,  are  the  organs  of  a  flower 
that  prepare  the  pollen.    They  consist  of  the  anther,  a,  and  the  filament,  b  (Fig. 
Fig.  167.      ^*^'^^'  situated  between  the  petals  and  the  pistils.    The  anther  is  a  lit- 
tle case  filled  with  dust,  called  pollen. 

Stem,  or  Peduncle,  in  pomology,  the  cylindrical  branch  that  sup- 
ports the  fruit.    The  stem  sometimes  signifies 
the  body  of  a  bush  or  tree. 

Stigma,  the  summit  of  the  style,  or  the  por- 
tion of  the  pistil  through  which  the  pollen  acts. 
Stock,  the  stem  or  branch  of  either  a  young  or 
old  tree  into  which  a  cion  or  bud  is  inserted. 

Straggling,  applied  to  the  growth  of  branches, 
like  Fig.  168,  which  shoot  out  in  almost  every 
conceivable  direction,  like  the  branches  of  the 
Winter-nelis  pear-tree.  The  forms  of  growth  il- 
lustrated in  this  work  have  been  made  in  accord- 
ance with  those  in  Downing's  "Fruit-trees  of 
America," and  J.  J.  Thomas's  "Fruit  Culturist." 
Striped,  when  the  stripes  appear  on  an  apple 
in  alternate  broad  lines,  like  the  Northern  Spy, 
which  is  striped  beautifully  with  red. 

Sucker,  or  Suckers,  oflf-sets,  or  shoots,  either 
from  the  roots,  stems,  or  branches  of  a  tree. 
Synonym,  another  name  for  the  same  thing.    An  apple,  for  example,  often  has 
several  synonyms,  or  diff"erent  names. 

Tap-root,  the  large  and  strong  root  that  extends  directly  downward  into  the 
earth,  for  the  two-fold  purpose  of  strengthening,  the  position  of  the  growing  tree, 
and  keeping  it  erect  during  storms  and  furious  winds,  and  also  to  supply  the 
leaves  with  moisture  in  hot  and  dry  weather.  It  also  exerts  an  important  in- 
fluence on  the  life  and  productiveness  of  apple-trees.    (See  Fig.  3,  p.  22.) 

Tenacious,  adhesive,  tough,  sticky,  or  holding  fast,  or  inclined  to  hold  fast  or 
retain  a  thing. 
Terminal,  situated  at  the  very  extremity  or  end. 

Texture,  referring  to  fruit  as  fine  or  coarse,  tender,  granular,  or  gritty,  fibrous, 
tough,  or  hard. 


StrafrKli"K  fonn  of 
growth. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OP  POMOLOGY.  .331 

Tisstie,  web  or  fabric,  or  the  organic  structure  or  composition  of  bodies. 

Tomentose,  covered  with  matted,  woolly  hairs ;  more  matted  than  is  expressed 
by  the  word  Pubescent. 

Transverse  S.ection  of  an  apple  is  made  by  cutting  the  specimen  into  two  parts 
at  nearly  a  right  angle  to  the  axis. 

Truncate,  or  Truncated,  having  the  extremity  cut  oflF  or  lopped,  or  one  corner 
bevelled  off. 

Tunicated,  covered  with  more  or  less  membranes  or  coats,  like  the  concentric 
coats  of  an  onion. 

Variety,  or  Varieties,  properly  signifies  the  difference  between  two  individuals  of 
the  same  species.  In  a  loose  way  of  talking,  people  speak  of  "different  kinds" 
of  apples,  as  the  Fameuse,  Jonathan,  Talman's  Sweeting,  etc.,  which  are  varieties 
—not  kinds.  Kind  signifies  genus — not  variety.  Hence,  in  order  to  speak  or  write 
with  scientific  correctness,  we  should  allude  to  apples  and  pears  bearing  different 
names  as  varieties. 

Vertically,  perpendicularly,  or  nearly  so. 

Villose,  with  soft,  long,  shaggy  hairs. 

Villose-tomentose  is  a  compound  terra  employed  to  describe  the  calyx  and  pedicel 
of  the  apple,  signifying  that  such  parts  are  covered  with  long,  shaggy,  soft,  wool- 
ly, and  matted  hairs. 

Worked  on.  When  a  cion  or  bnd  is  inserted  and  continues  to  grow  on  a  stock, 
the  former  is  said  to  be  "  worked  on  the  stock." 


INDEX. 


Aphis,  or  Aphides Page  275 

Apple,  description  of 317 

Apple-pacljer  (illustrated) 296 

Apple-parer  and  slicer 308 

Apple-trees,  what  they  need 65 

Bones  for 156 

Transplanting  of 84 

Apples :  Autumn  Strawberry 154 

Baldwin T5 

Bellflower,  the  Yellow 6 

Canada  Reiuette 139 

Duchess  of  Oldenburg 186 

Fall  Pippin 311 

Fameuse 25 

Fenouillet,  Jaune 226 

Grimes's  Golden  Pippin 131 

Hubbardston's  Nonsuch 143 

King  of  Tompkins  County 86 

Myers's  Nonpareil 176 

Newtown  Spitzenberg 316 

Peck's  Pleasant 96 

Pound  Royal 107 

Red  Astrakhan 210 

Red  Canada 18 

Rhode  Island  Greening 164 

Seek-no-further,  Westfield 27 

Swaar 63 

Talman's  Sweeting 282 

Tetofsky 120 

Transcendent  Crab-apple 83 

Apples,  gathering  and  management 

of 283 

Analysis  of 302 

Assorting 286 

Carrying  by  hand 293 

For  domestic  animals 300 

Fried,  for  food  . . .  .• 298 

How  to  dry 304 

How  to  pluck 293-295 

When  to  pluck 284 

Aquarius  (illustrated) 277 

Army-worm  (illustrated) 278 

Ashes,  wood,  for  orchards 165 

Bandages  for  budding 53 

Bark,  description  of 319 


Basin  of  apple  (illustrated)  — Page  320 

Blight  in  apple-trees 175 

Blossom  (illustrated) 320 

Borers,  apple-tree 256 

Twig 269 

Budding,  modes  of 43 

V  ersus  grafting 46 

Buds  (illustrated) 321 

Cambium 321 

Canker-worm 232 

Caterpillar,  American  Tent 249 

Forest-tent 261 

Red-humped 2S1 

Cider,  how  made 310 

Cider-mill 313 

Codling-moth 267 

Collar  of  apple-tree 322 

Crab-apple 223 

Cultivator,  Alden's  Thill 147 

Curculio,  with  illustrations 238 

Doucin  stocks 223 

Embryo 223 

Fruit,  definition  of 324 

Fruit-dryer  (illustrated) 306 

Fruit-  preserving  house 29 

Garbage  for  trees 168 

Gauge  for  pruning  trees 172 

Gauge-board  (illustrated) 83 

Grafting,  different  modes  of 23 

Grafting-wax,  pot  for 65 

Grafts,  with  illustrations 322 

Hybrid,  definition  of. 225 

Inoculation,  or  budding 38 

Insects,  noxious,  in  orchards 227 

How  to  exterminate 228 

Jelly  made  of  apples 309 

Knife,  for  budding 42 

For  pruning 123 

Leaf,  with  illustration 225 

Lice,  bark 269 

Oyster-shell 271 

Root f 273 

Machine,  tree,  on  wheels r. 109 

Mice  (illustrations) 217-220 

Molasses  made  of  apples 309 


334 


INDEX. 


Moths,  millers,  and  flies Page  230 

Muzzle  for  horses  (illustrated) 149 

Orchards,  management  of 144 

Cause  of  barrenness  in 224 

Culture  of,  on  prairies 221 

Double  planting 98 

How  to  lay  out  the  ground  for... .    70 

Management  of  old ITO 

On  rough  land 68 

Orioles  in 201 

Protecting  of,  from  mice 166 

Under-draining  of 61 

Paradise  stock 320 

Pies,  apple,  how  made 317 

Pincers,  or  Crushers 237 

Pistils,  with  illustration 328 

Plough,  subsoil 58 

Plumule  (illustrated) 22,  328 

Staging,  portable 295 

Stamens  (illustrated) 330 

Stem,  or  peduncle 330 

Stove  in  fruit-cellar 290 

Sulphur-bellows 281 

Sulphur  remedy 280 

Sweep  for  laying  out  ground 77 

Swine  near  trees 175 

Syringe  (illustrated) 276 

Tap-root,  cutting  oflf. 100 

Transplanting  in  autumn 97 

Tree-lifters  and  movers 106 


Trees,  true  way  to  produce Page    48 

How  to  stake 91 

Setting  on  surface 93 

Variety  (see  Glossary) 331 

Vinegar,  how  to  make 313 

Vinegar-maker  (illustrated) 314 

Wax  for  grafting 54 

Woodpeckers  in  orchards 199 

Woolly  aphis  (illustrated) 275 

Pollen,  with  illustrations 328 

Pruner,  Doty's 133 

Pruning,  philosophy  of Ill 

Pupa,- or  chrysalis  (illustrated) 328 

Quincunx  style 74 

Root,  or  Roots 392 

Root-pruning 141 

Roots,  extension  of 90, 101 

Rule  for  laying  out  ground 82 

Saws,  pruning 121 

For  grafting 38 

Scale-insect 272 

Scarifier,  Nishwitz's 150 

Scraper,  cast-iron 92 

Apple-tree 169 

Seeds,  how  they  vegetate 21 

Shears,  pruning 121 

Shrub 329 

Sluice  in  orchard  (illustrated) 192 

Spray,  definition  of 329 

Spurs  (illustrated) 330 


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Four  Gospels.    944  pages,  Bvo,  Cloth,  $6  00 ;  Sheep,  $6  50. 

ABBOTT'S  HISTORY  OF  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION.  The  French 
Revolution  of  1789,  as  viewed  in  the  Light  of  Republican  Institutions.  By 
John  S.  C.  Abbott.    With  100  Engravings,    Svo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

ABBOTT'S  NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE.  The  History  of  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte.  By  John  S.  C.  Abbott.  With  Maps,  Woodcuts,  and  Portraits 
on  Steel.    2  vols.,  8vo,  Cloth,  $10  00. 

ABBOTT'S  NAPOLEON  AT  ST.  HELENA ;  or,  Interesting  Anecdotes  and 
Remarkable  Conversations  of  the  Emperor  during  the  Five  and  a  Half 
Years  of  his  Captivity.  Collected  from  the  Memorials  of  Las  Casas, 
O'Meara,  Montholon,  Antommarchi,  and  others.  By  John  S.  C.  Abbott. 
With  Illustrations.  Svo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

ADDISON'S  COMPLETE  WORKS,  The  Works  of  Joseph  Addison,  em- 
bracing the  whole  of  the  "Spectator."  Complete  in  3  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth, 
$6  00. 

ALCOCK'S  JAPAN,  The  Capital  of  the  Tycoon :  a  Narrative  of  a  Three 
Years'  Residence  in  Japan.  By  Sir  Rutherford  Aloock,  K.C.B.,  Her 
Majesty's  Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary  in  Japan. 
With  Maps  and  Engravings.    2  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

ALISON'S  HISTORY  OF  EUROPE.  First  Series  :  From  the  Commence- 
ment of  the  French  Revolution,  in  1789.  to  the  Restoration  of  the  Bour- 
bons, in  1815.  [In  addition  to  the  Notes  on  Chapter  LXXVL,  which  cor- 
rect the  errors  of  the  original  work  concerning  the  United  States,  a 
copious  Afialytical  Index  has  been  appended  to  this  American  edition.] 
Second  Series  :  From  the  Fall  of  Napoleon,  in  1815,  to  the  Accession  of 
Louis  Napoleon,  in  1852.    8  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $16  00. 

BANCROFT'S  MISCELLANIES.  Literary  and  Historical  Miscellanies. 
By  Geokse  Bancroft.    Svo,  Cloth,  $3  00. 


DEPARTMENT  BOOK  CARD 

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SB  363 
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